BatStateU Purposive Communication

Lesson 6: Communication for Academic Purposes

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you are expected to achieve the following:

1. Identify and apply the different stylistic elements of good academic writing.
2. Develop a socio-political analysis paper or a position paper.
3. Write a research-based documented essay observing stylistic conventions of academic
writing.

Academic Writing

Academic writing refers to a style of

expression that researchers use to define the
intellectual boundaries of their disciplines and
specific areas of expertise. It is designed to
convey agreed meaning about complex ideas or
concepts for a group of scholarly experts.

STYLISTIC ELEMENTS OF GOOD ACADEMIC WRITING

The accepted form of academic writing in diverse disciplines can vary considerably depending
on the intended audience and the organizational outline. However, most university-level academic
papers require careful attention to the following stylistic elements:

The Overall View. Unlike journalistic or fiction writing, the overall structure of academic
writing is formal and logical. Thus, it is important to take note of the following points:

• The paper must be cohesive and possess a logically organized flow of ideas -- this suggests
that the various parts are connected to form a unified whole.
• There should be transitional devices or narrative links between sentences and paragraphs
so that the reader will be able to follow your argument.
• The introduction should include an explanation of how the rest of the paper is organized
and all sources are properly cited throughout the paper.

Language. The analysis of research problems in diverse disciplines is often complex and
multi-dimensional. Hence, it is significant that you use language that fits your audience and
matches your purpose. Inappropriate language uses can undermine your argument, damage your
credibility, or alienate your audience. Here are some points to remember:

• The key to successful writing focuses on the levels of formality and conciseness that
underscores writing in a style that your audience expects and that fits your purpose.

• Use clear topic sentences and well-structured paragraphs to enable readers to follow
your line of thinking without difficulty.

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• Avoid using in-group jargons or specialized language used by groups of like-minded

individuals. You have to bear in mind that you only use in-group jargon when you are
writing for members of that group. You should never use jargon for a general audience
without first explaining it.

• Avoid using slang or idiomatic expressions in general academic writing.

• Avoid using euphemisms or words that veil the truth and other deceitful language.

• Avoid using biased language including language with a racial, ethnic, group, or gender
bias or language that is stereotypical.

Academic Tone. The overall tone refers to the writer's voice in a written work. It is what the
readers might perceive as the writer's attitude, bias, or personality. When writing in an academic
tone, you must take into consideration the following points:

• Present the arguments of others

objectively and with an appropriate
narrative tone.
• Describe these arguments accurately
and without biased or loaded language
whenever you present an argument or a
position that you disagree with.
• Investigate the research problem from
an authoritative perspective.
• State the strong points of your
arguments confidently by using
language that is neutral, not dismissive
or confrontational.
• Avoid making broad generalizations,
using over-sweeping adjectives, adverbs,
qualifiers, emotional language and
inflammatory language.

Academic Diction. Academic diction refers to the linguistic choices a writer makes to
effectively convey an idea or a standpoint. When writing in an academic diction, you must take note
of the following points:
• Awareness of the words you use is vital
because words that have almost the same
denotation or dictionary definition can have
very different connotations or implied
meanings.

• Use concrete and specific words that convey

precise meaning.

• Explain what you mean within the context

of how that word or phrase is used within a
discipline.

• Be consistent with your labels. Call people

what they want to be called. Use gender
inclusive language. Avoid placing gender
identifiers in front of nouns.

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• Avoid the use of the following:

o slang expressions (very informal language that is usually spoken rather than
written, used especially by particular groups of people);
o cliché phrases (ideas or expressions that have been used too often and is often
considered a sign of bad writing or old-fashioned thinking);
o metaphors or figures of speech (words or phrases used in a non-literal sense for
rhetorical or vivid effect);
o colloquialisms (common words or phrases used in a nontraditional and informal
way);
o jargons (special words or expressions used by a particular profession or group and
are difficult for others to understand);
o big words (difficult words or phrases used for the sake of sounding scholarly);
o meaningless words (words or phrases that hold little meaning when you consider
the potentially diverse backgrounds of your reading audience);
o platitudes (clichés that also pretend to offer advice, lesson, or moral guidance);
o pejoratives (words or phrases that express the bias of the author);
o contractions (words made by shortening and combining two words), and text-
messages or short message service (SMS) spellings
o These casual expressions may be appropriate in informal or personal messages, but
they are inappropriate in academic research papers.

• Use personal pronouns carefully. Generally, you also want to avoid using the personal "I"
in an academic paper unless you are writing a reflection paper or a reaction paper.

• Writing from the third-person point of view is important in academic research writing
because it makes your paper sounds more assertive, more professional and credible.

Punctuation. To establish the narrative tone of their work, scholars rely on precise words and
language. Thus, punctuation marks are used very deliberately.

• Semi-colons represent a pause that is

longer than a comma, but shorter than a
period in a sentence. In general, there are
four grammatical uses of semi-colons:
- when a second clause expands or
explains the first clause;
- to describe a sequence of actions or
different aspects of the same topic;
- placed before clauses which begin
with “for instance”, “even so”,
"nevertheless", and "therefore"; and
- to mark off a series of phrases or
clauses which contain commas.
If you are not confident about when to
use semi-colons, rewrite using shorter
sentences or revise the paragraph.

• Colons should be limited to introducing,

announcing or directing attention to a list, a
noun or noun phrase, a quotation, or an
example/explanation; joining sentences; and
expressing time, in titles, and as part of
other writing conventions.

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• Hyphens should be limited to connecting prefixes to words like “multi-disciplinary” or
when forming compound words or phrases like “on-site” and “right-of-way.”
• Dashes should be limited to the insertion of an explanatory comment in a sentence.
• Exclamation points are rarely used to express a heightened tone because it can come
across as unsophisticated or over-excited.

Academic Conventions

The most important aspect of academic writing is citing sources in the body of your paper and
providing a list of references as either footnotes or endnotes. When considering academic
conventions, you must take into consideration the following points:

• It is essential to always acknowledge the

source of any ideas, research findings, data,
paraphrased, or quoted text that you have
used in your paper as a defense against
allegations of plagiarism.
• With reference to academic writing purposes,
the guidelines for fair use are reasonably
explicit. This means that you may quote from
or paraphrase material from previously
published works without formally obtaining
the copyright holder’s permission.

Fair use means that you legitimately use brief excerpts from source material to support and develop
your own ideas. However, quoting or paraphrasing another’s work at excessive length, to the extent
that large sections of the writing are unoriginal, is not fair use.

• Rules concerning precise word structure and excellent grammar do not apply when
quoting someone. To set off and represent exact language either spoken or written that
has come from somebody else is the primary function of quotation marks. Direct
quotations involve incorporating another person's exact words into your own writing.

• The following covers the basic use of quotation marks:

- Quotation marks always come in pairs. Do not open a quotation and fail to close it
at the end of the quoted material;
- Capitalize the first letter of a direct quote when the quoted material is a complete
sentence;
- Do not use a capital letter when the quoted material is a fragment or only a piece
of the original material's complete sentence;
- If a direct quotation is interrupted mid-sentence, do not capitalize the second part
of the quotation;
- Note that the period or comma punctuation always comes before the final
quotation mark. However, it is important to realize also that when you are using
some other form of documentation, this punctuation rule may change;
- When quoting text with a spelling or grammar error, you should transcribe the
error exactly in your own text. However, also insert the term sic in italics directly
after the mistake, and enclose it in brackets. Sic is from the Latin, and translates
to "thus," "so," or "just as that." The word tells the readers that your quote is an
exact reproduction of what you found, and the error is not your own;

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- When there is a quote within a quotation, enclose the inner quote in single quotation
marks and the whole quotation in double quotation marks;
- Direct quotations which run to less than five lines are integrated in the text and simply
enclosed in quotation marks;
- Quoted material that runs from five or more lines are indented seven spaces, italicized,
and typed single space. The quotation is also indented at least four spaces from the
right-hand margin. No quotation marks are used; and
- Quotations are most effective if you use them sparingly and keep them relatively short.
Too many quotations in a research paper will get you accused of not producing original
thought or material.

• The scholarly convention of citing sources allows readers to identify the resources you
used in writing your paper so they can independently verify and assess the quality of
findings and conclusions based on your review of the literature.
•
• Other examples of academic conventions to follow include the appropriate use of headings
and subheadings, properly spelling out acronyms when first used in the text, and avoiding
unsupported declarative statements.

Evidence-Based Reasoning
Coursework often asks you to express your own
standpoint about the research problem. However,
what is valued in academic writing is that
viewpoints or opinions are based on what is often
termed, evidence-based reasoning. This type of
reasoning underscores the following:

• A sound understanding of the pertinent

body of knowledge and academic debates
that exist within, and often external to
your discipline;

• The need to support your opinion with evidence from scholarly sources;

• An objective stance presented as a logical argument;

• The quality of your evidence will determine the strength of your argument; and

• The challenge is to convince the reader of the validity of your opinion through a well-
documented, coherent, and logically structured piece of writing, which is particularly
important when proposing solutions to problems or delineating recommended courses of
action.

Thesis-Driven. Academic writing is

“thesis-driven.” This implies the following:

• The starting point is a particular

perspective, idea, or position applied to
the chosen topic of investigation, such
as, establishing, proving, or disproving
solutions to the research questions
posed for the topic.

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• A problem statement without the research questions does not qualify as academic writing
because simply identifying the research problem does not establish for the reader how you
will contribute to solving the problem, what aspects you believe are most critical, or suggest
a method for gathering data to better understand the problem.

Complexity and Higher-Order Thinking. Academic writing addresses multifaceted issues

that require higher-order thinking skills applied to understanding the research problem such as
creative, critical, logical, and reflective thinking as opposed to, for example, prescriptive or
descriptive thinking. When considering complexity and higher-order thinking skills, you must take
note of the following:
• Cognitive processes that describe
abstract ideas that cannot be
easily shown with images,
pointed to, or acted out and are
used to express concepts, to
comprehend, and to solve
problems comprise higher-order
thinking skills.

• Reflect on this: One of the most

significant attributes of a good
teacher is the ability to explain
complexity in a way that is
understandable and relatable to
the topic being presented. This is
also one of the main purposes of
academic writing -- examining
and explaining the significance
of complex ideas as clearly as
possible.

• As a writer, you must adopt the role of a good teacher by summarizing a lot of complex
information into a well-organized synthesis of ideas, concepts, and recommendations that
contribute to a better understanding of the research problem.

Refining Academic Writing

To improve your academic writing

skills, you should focus your efforts on four
key areas:

Clear Writing. The act of thinking

about precedes the process of writing about.
Good writers spend sufficient time distilling
information and reviewing major points
from the literature they have reviewed
before creating their work. Writing detailed
outlines can help you clearly organize your
thoughts. Effective academic writing begins
with solid planning, so manage your time
carefully.

Excellent Grammar. Generally, English grammar can be difficult and complex; even the best
scholars take many years before they have a command of the major points of good grammar. Take
the time to learn the minor and major points of good grammar to avoid presenting papers riddled
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with errors. Spend time practicing writing and seek detailed feedback from professors. Good
proofreading skills and proper punctuation can significantly improve academic writing.

Credible and Scholarly Sources. Credibility is defined as the quality or power of inspiring
belief. Credible sources, therefore, must be reliable sources that provide information that one can
believe to be true. It is important to use credible sources in an academic research paper because
your audience will expect you to have backed up your assertions with credible evidence. The five
best resources to help you in writing a research paper include: your University’s Library; Google
Scholar, RefSeek, the Internet Public Library (ipl2), and the Education Resources Information
Center (ERIC).

• Your University’s Library provides you

access to several resources such as
online databases, e-books, books,
journals, and other research articles.

• Google Scholar is a resource that

provides you a list of journal articles,
portable document formats (pdfs), and
websites focusing on much more credible
and scholarly sources appropriate for an
academic research paper.

• RefSeek is a resource that allows you to

research specifically for documents,
giving you a better chance of finding
credible information to help you write
your research paper.

• Internet Public Library (ipl2) is a resource

that allows you to search by subject. It
links to websites, rather than scholarly
journals.

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• Education Resources Information

Center (ERIC) is a database that
primarily focuses on education, but it
also includes a number of related topics
such as psychology, social work, and
other social issues.

On the other hand, you must refrain from using the following sources when writing an
academic research paper: The Dictionary, [Link], and [Link], as well as other Wikis.

• The Dictionary is a good sources; however,

it could not provide you with a more
specialized definition of terms needed in an
academic research paper.

• [Link] could provide useful

information such as novel ideas and
information related to fashion, health,
sports, entertainment and the like.
However, such information is
irrelevant to academic research
writing.

• [Link] and other Wikis are also

good websites; however, the problem with
them is that anyone can write and edit
them, hence you cannot vouch for the
credibility of the given information.

Consistent Stylistic Approach. When your professor expresses a preference to use the
American Psychological Association (APA) style, or the Modern Language Association (MLA) style
or the Chicago Manual of Style, choose the suggested style guide and stick to it. Each of these style
guides provide rules on how to write out numbers, references, citations, footnotes, and lists.
Consistent adherence to a style of writing helps with the narrative flow of your paper and improves
its readability.

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ACADEMIC PAPERS

SOCIO-POLITICAL ANALYSIS PAPER

A socio-political analysis paper can be

defined as an analysis of the economic, social, and
political factors that shape a particular country or
situation and how these factors impact the lives
and thoughts of the people. It is considered a
powerful tool for understanding how countries
work and what might be done to help them cope
with their challenges in order to reform and to set
their priorities in a way that make them more
likely to succeed.

Guidelines in Writing a Socio-Political Analysis Paper

Crafting a strong socio-political analysis paper depends largely on its structure and
understanding of the role of each component of the paper.

A Clear Introduction. The paper should begin with introductory paragraphs that introduce
your readers to the problem or question you are addressing; lay out the thesis statement; and
provide them a “roadmap” on how you will defend your thesis. In the introduction, you may likewise
present a general background information or provide your own motivation for writing.

The Problem. The problem refers to the wider subject or question you are trying to address
with your paper. You may situate your more specific argument within a broader
problem that states why your paper is relevant economically, socially and politically.

The Thesis. An argumentative thesis statement is not synonymous to the topic of the paper,
nor a statement of fact, nor an observation about the text so obvious or general that
no one would dispute it. Rather, it is an argument or a declaration of what you will
accomplish in the paper. Typically, a thesis takes the form of one to two sentences
placed towards the end of the introductory paragraph.

The Roadmap. The roadmap is a plan that follows the thesis statement. It operates like a
preview of the paper’s main points which is presented in logical order. Such a plan is
highly encouraged on the account that it not only lends clarity to the structure of your
argument, but also provides a check for the logical coherence of the points you make.

Sample Introduction: Underlying Socio-Political Processes Behind the 2016 US Election-

A Socio-political Analysis Paper written by John Bryden and Eric Silverman (2019)

Introduction

Donald Trump’s victory in the GOP primaries and the Presidential

race surprised political analysts and confounded pollsters. Trump achieved
this victory via a populist campaign which incorporated racially-charged
and misogynistic language (Brexit, 2017 and Valentino et al., 2018). This
unusual campaign shifted the direction of the GOP and the US right-wing
toward the far-right of the political spectrum (Valentino et al., 2018). An

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important factor behind this success was the campaign’s use of social media
communication channels, especially Twitter (Francia, 2017).

Twitter, and social media in general, have become important tools

for politicians and their followers to spread political messages (Bennett,
2003; Farrell & Drezner, 2008; Sunstein, 2009; Conover et al. 2012; and
Duggan & Smith, 2016). The hierarchical structures commonly found in
social media networks mean that well-connected politicians act as hub
nodes, with information and influence spreading outward over the network.
Political parties form clusters which reside at the centre of these networks
(Farrell & Drezner, 2008; Duggan & Smith, 2016; Vergeer, 2015; and
Jungherr, 2016). As intra-party discourse is increasingly taking place
online, traditional boundaries between politicians, activists, party-members
and members of the public have become increasingly blurred.

The increased openness of parties moving their political discourse

online has undoubted benefits for transparency and accountability. The
concern is the opportunity this provides for an external group to target the
online presence of a political party, and then start to dictate their political
direction. The ability of a minority group to rapidly generate a new political
faction and take control of a major political party in this way can cause
problems for democracy (Hume, 2002; and Linz & Stepan, 1978). Such a
novel process would differ radically from more traditional models of
dynamics amongst political elites who occupy different internal factions of a
party (Hume, 2002; and Harmel et al.,1995), moving to a model whereby
external factions play a stronger role (Harmel et al., 1995; Zariski, 1960;
and Budge et al., 2010). In this work, the author looks for evidence of an
external group influencing the online presence of the GOP in the run up to
the 2016 election and how this can explain the shift in the party’s direction.

The authors’ work seeks to understand how communities of activists

might provoke such a significant shift in the attitudes and rhetoric of a
major political party. The authors looked for how political activists
organised themselves and their political messaging, and how these aspects
changed over time. Likewise, the authors did this by examining Twitter
data in the context of the 2016 election, given that Twitter has been shown
to reflect US national polling aggregates accurately (Bovet et al., 2018). By
studying these changes, the authors can analyse and document shifting
allegiances during the election cycle, and the roles of different factors
driving these dynamics.

* Note: The GOP or the Grand Old Party also refers to The
Republican Party.

* Disclaimer: In order to adhere to the stylistic elements of academic

writing, the authors modified the in-text citation format and the point of
view used in the sample socio-political analysis paper.

A Well-organized Body. The body of the paper follows the introduction. It is in this part
where you develop your thesis and defend it with detailed evidence. The structure of the body
should follow the roadmap that you have provided in the introduction. It must be structured
logically so that each point and paragraph flows from the preceding one.

In writing the body, you should take into consideration the main defenses that you need to
make in order to substantiate your thesis and should think about what order makes the most sense;
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how does each proposition relate to the next; and their relationship to the main thesis. Frequently,
the last section of the body of the paper considers alternative explanations or counter-arguments to
yours which you present and then argue against in further defense of your thesis. This is not always
necessary, but in a socio-political analysis paper, it is often a good way to defend your thesis from
others’ best counter-arguments.

Sample: Body of a Socio-Political Analysis Paper titled: Underlying Socio-Political Processes

Behind the 2016 US Election - A Socio-political Analysis Paper written by John
Bryden and Eric Silverman (2019)

An Excerpt of the Body of a Socio-Political Analysis Paper

To study social and socio-political processes, the authors’ method

incorporates two key novel aspects. First, an innovative sampling procedure
which allows them to target and download key groups of interest. Second, their
generated data shows how groups evolve over time, including the shifting
allegiances of group members. Since these data are dynamic networks, this
approach can enhance their understanding of dynamic social processes. While
much modelling work has been done (Gross & Blasius, 2008; Bryden et al., 2011;
Mantovani et al., 2011; Ramos et al., 2015; and Böttcher et al., 2018), the next
step is to bring these models to data such as that presented in this work (Lazer
et al., 2009; Lazer et al., 2010; Gonçalves & Perra, 2015; and Weaver (2018).

Given the self-selecting nature of Twitter groups, the authors may be

concerned that the groups they have found may not truly reflect the position of
the party’s base. However, the high levels of intra-group connections are
representative of an interconnected political party (Conover et al., 2012; and
Bryden et al., 2013). The behaviour observed in this sample during the 2016
election cycle does match the behaviour seen during the rise of the Tea Party and
victory of Trump in the primary elections. The sample here was targeted initially
at the Alt-right, but the authors found connected accounts which were also
associated with the right-wing of both the US and other countries, suggesting
that the sample has captured a wide swathe of right-wing political
communication and not just fringe groups or extremist individuals. The sample
also went beyond the right-wing political sphere and sampled a loosely intra-
connected group of general Twitter accounts (see group marked * in Fig 1),
indicating that it had captured a comprehensive picture of those accounts
associated with the US right-wing.

Social media has continued to expand its influence over the political
process (Bennett, 2003; Farrell & Drezner, 2008; Sunstein, 2009; Conover et al.,
2012; Duggan & Smith, 2016; Vergeer, 2015; Jungherr, 2016; and Bovet et al.,
2018). These technologies enable individuals to easily connect with one another,
based on shared political opinions. It follows that they are likely to be playing a
strong role in recent social-political movements by allowing politicians to rally
disaffected individuals. At the very least, social media data allow the authors to
observe the processes behind changing political factions. Understanding these
processes, and how they happen is critically important to understanding modern
democracy and voter’s behaviour, and the method marks a step change in how
political factions can be identified, analysed, and tracked.

* Disclaimer: In order to adhere to the stylistic elements of academic writing,

the authors modified the in-text citation format and the point of view used in
the sample socio-political analysis paper.
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A Strong Conclusion. The last component of the paper is the conclusion. Here, you should
restate the main ideas; summarize the main concepts or key arguments of the paper and reinforce it
without repeating or rewording the introduction or body of the paper; draw a conclusion based on
the information; and include suggested courses of action and possible solutions or recommendations.

Sample: Conclusion of a Socio-Political Analysis Paper titled: Underlying Socio-Political

Processes Behind the 2016 US Election - A Socio-political Analysis Paper written by
John Bryden and Eric Silverman (2019)

Conclusion
Donald Trump’s ascent to the Presidency has prompted a great deal of
effort amongst pollsters, political scientists and social scientists to unearth the
reasons for his unexpected success. Here, the authors provide a method to
follow the shifts in group membership and influence that can occur in political
parties, and in so doing provide indicators of impending moves toward
extremism within those parties. The results fit into a picture where the Trump
campaign’s mobilisation of a targeted group of supporters more than made up
for Clinton’s funding advantage (Böttcher et al., 2018; and Melo (2018): A
significant shift in the US political landscape. With that in mind, developing a
more robust understanding of how political factions can be identified and
analysed can give readers a way to follow these fast-appearing and highly-
motivated supporter groups, and their influence on politics.

* Disclaimer: In order to adhere to the stylistic elements of academic

writing, the authors modified the in-text citation format and the point of
view used in the sample socio-political analysis paper.

Socio-Political Analysis Paper Performance Task Sheet: Prepare to Analyze, Defend, and Write

1. Prepare a Socio-Political Analysis Paper, following the aforecited structure. The topic is on
“Online Learning in Third World Countries”.

2. Proofread your work to ensure that:

a. There are no glaring grammatical or typographical errors that might affect your paper;
b. Sufficient supporting details have been provided for each paragraph.
c. All sources have been properly cited; follow the APA format for Page 2 onwards;
d. The third person perspective is used, since you are presenting statement of facts instead
of a personal belief or narrative; and
e. Your paper is not simply a summary of articles, evidence and authoritative references.

3. Reminders:
• Limit your Socio-Political Analysis Paper to 500-600 words (short bond paper);
references excluded; the first page serves as your title page.
• Use the font style Arial Narrow, font size 12, with 1.5 spacing and 1” margin on all sides.
• Your paper will be scored using the Rubric for Assessment of Academic Papers adapted
from Whalen, S. “Rubric from Contemporary Health Issues Research Paper”

Details of submission will be discussed by your professor.

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POSITION PAPER

The position paper aims to generate

support on an issue. It describes the authors’ or
organization’s position on an issue and the
rationale for that position. It is based on facts
that provide a solid foundation for the authors’
argument.

In the position paper the authors should

use evidence to support position, such as
statistical evidence or indisputable dates and
events; validate position with authoritative
references or primary source quotations;
examine the strengths and weaknesses of the
position; and evaluate possible solutions and
suggest courses of action.

Guidelines in Writing a Position Paper

Just like a socio-political analysis paper, crafting a strong position paper depends largely on
its structure and understanding of the role of each component of the paper.

A Clear Introduction. The paper should begin with introductory paragraphs that introduce
your readers to the problem or question you are addressing, lay out the thesis statement or main
position, and provide readers with a “roadmap” on how you will defend your thesis. In the
introduction, you may likewise present a general background information or provide your own
motivation for writing.

The Clever Hook. The introduction should start with statements written in a way that
catches your readers’ attention. This part will not only identify the subject of the
paper but it will likewise make the readers want to learn more about the subject.

The Identified Issue. The third part of the introduction should show the main issue of the
paper. Here you give the highlight and interpretation of facts.

The Authors’ Position. The introduction should end with a solid thesis statement that
expresses your position on the topic. The thesis statement essentially serves as a
mini-outline for the paper. It helps you to assert or articulate your ideas and helps
readers understand the purpose of the paper.

Sample: Introduction of a Position Paper titled: COVID-19 Position Paper: A

Multidimensional Crisis that Affects All - A Position Paper written by the European
Students’ Union

Introduction
The recent outbreak of COVID-19 is the gravest health crisis the world
has seen in a century. A significant proportion of asymptomatic carriers of the
disease, often with mild symptoms that can be confused for other illnesses, and
a lack of sufficient testing makes it extremely hard to accurately assess the
number of infected people. The death toll and the number of patients in urgent
need of hospital treatment however is still exponentially increasing in most
affected areas (The Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine Website, 2020).

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On Monday the 6th of April (06.04.2020), the World Health Organisation
counts 1.133.758 reported cases and 62.784 deaths. Alongside with the United
States, Europe remains an epicentre of the global pandemic, with 621.407
confirmed cases (World Health Organization Website, 2020).

These figures exploded in a matter of days, putting Europe’s national

healthcare systems in severe distress, with some (such as Italy’s and Spain’s)
currently on the verge of collapse. One reason for this is the slow pace and
delays in taking action on part of the European decision-makers, with crisis
response starting in mid-March while international spread started in January
and major outbreaks outside China in mid-February. The current political
answer to ease the pressure on healthcare systems has included travel bans,
closure of frontiers (also within the Schengen area), schools, universities, public
buildings, and workplaces. Some of the most severely hit countries enforced a
complete lockdown including the shutdown of all non-essential economic
activities.

The implications of this pan-European lockdown are rapidly

transforming a health crisis into an economic and social crisis. As a segment
within wider society, students are hit in multiple ways while facing potentially
extreme social and economic distress deriving from the response to the crisis.

* Disclaimer: In order to adhere to the stylistic elements of academic

writing, the authors modified the in-text citation format in the sample position
paper.

A Well-organized Body. The body of the paper follows the introduction. It is the nerve center of the
paper where you develop your thesis and defend it with detailed evidences. The structure of the
body should follow the roadmap that you have provided in the introduction. It must be structured
logically so that each point and paragraph flows from the preceding one.

In writing the body, you should take into consideration the main defenses that you need to make
in order to substantiate your thesis and should think about what order makes the most sense, how
does each proposition relate to the next, and their relationship to the main thesis.

Frequently, the last section of the body of the paper considers alternative explanations or
counter-arguments to yours which you present and then argue against in further defense of your
thesis. This is not always necessary, but in position paper, it is often a good way to defend your
thesis from others’ best counter-arguments.

After providing a brief introduction of your organization or country and its history concerning
the topic, present the following typical contents of a good position paper:

• the issue and how it affects your organization or country;

• your country’s/organization’s policies with respect to the issue and your
organization’s/country’s justification for these policies;
• statistics to back up your organization’s/country’s position on the issue;
• actions taken by your organization/government with regard to the issue;
• reputable international, regional and/or national agencies’ actions that your
organization/country supported or opposed;
• what your organization/country believes should be done to address the issue;
• what your organization/country would like to accomplish in the committee’s
resolution;

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• how the positions of other organizations/countries affect your
organization’s/country’s position; and
• your best alternative explanations or counter-arguments.

Sample: Body of Position Paper titled: COVID-19 Position Paper: A Multidimensional Crisis
that Affects All - A Position Paper written by the European Students’ Union

An Excerpt of the Body of a Position Paper

The European Council of the 26th March 2020: The decision to postpone any
decisions.

Notwithstanding the urgency of the situation, the Eurogroup failed to

come up with concrete proposals to tackle the crisis and demanded the
European Council to decide on the way forward. The European Council on the
26th of March 2020, mainly dedicated to COVID-19, endorsed stronger
coordination to ease the movement of necessary goods, the pooling of scientific
resources to fight against the virus and the coordination for supplying medical
equipment where needed ([Link] Website, 2020).

With regard to the economic issues however, the Council decided to not
decide. Instead, it asked the Eurogroup to come up with “proposals [that] should
take into account the unprecedented nature of the COVID-19 shock affecting all
our countries and our response will be stepped up, as necessary, with further
action in an inclusive way, in light of developments, in order to deliver a
comprehensive response”. Furthermore, the European Council invited the
Presidents of the European Council and the president of the European
Commission to “start working on a Roadmap accompanied by an Action Plan in
order to develop “a coordinated exit strategy, a comprehensive recovery plan
and unprecedented investment” ([Link] Website, 2020).

The European Students’ Union believes that the future of its constituents
– the students it represents, lies in the well-being of the societies they live in,
and in the economies, they are going to contribute to once they finish their
studies. ESU, therefore, welcomes the proposal of a pan-European coordinated
Action Plan for the economic recovery of the continent, and calls on the EU to
coordinate its efforts with the countries of the wider Europe. On the other hand,
ESU regrets the indecisiveness of the European heads of State and government
in finding a common joint proposal for financing the economic management of
the crisis and the recovery of its aftermath. ESU hopes that the given deadline
of two weeks will provide the Eurogroup and the European Council with the
wisdom to understand that a common economic and financial response to the
crisis not only fulfils the commitment of solidarity within the EU, but is also in
the best interest of each Member State.

The European Students’ Union believes that the coronavirus crisis has
shown the importance of public investment in public goods such as welfare,
education, research and healthcare. ESU, therefore, calls for a central focus to
the investment in public goods within the Recovery Action Plan that will be
proposed by the Presidents of the European Council and of the European
Commission. In most of the issues related to public goods, the European Union
has only supportive competences. The European Students’ Union envisages the
Recovery Action Plan as a coordinated framework of measures with clear Pan-
European objectives. It should be co-developed and implemented by the
European Union and the Member States, taking advantage of the economies of
scale as well as the interdependencies and the spillover effects that national
measures have on the European economy as a whole.

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The Recovery Action Plan needs to become a channel of green transition

for the European continent: A Green Deal based on disinvestment on carbon-
intensive sectors and investment in carbon-neutrality of production,
transportation and delivery of energy and goods. The economic crisis resulting
from the current health crisis must not become an excuse to delay the action on
climate and environmental sustainability – this would only create even more
severe problems in the future both for the economy and public health. Instead,
Europe must see the synergies between the massive investments that will be
necessary to boost the economy and the urgently needed investments in the
green transition. When thousands of Europeans lose their jobs due to COVID-
19, let us make sure the new jobs we stimulate are green jobs, for example by
investing in energy renovation of buildings and electrification of the
transportation system.

To finance this plan, new resources need to be at disposal of the Union.

The Multiannual Financial Framework (MFF) needs to be bigger than the
currently negotiated proposals. New forms of autonomous resources for the EU
should be developed while envisaging the possibility to use a new common
financial instrument, directly managed by the Union and targeted on the
members states’ implementation of the objectives and the measures as set out in
the Action Plan.

* Disclaimer: In order to adhere to the stylistic elements of academic writing, the

authors modified the in-text citation format in the sample position paper.

A Strong Conclusion. The last component of the paper is the conclusion. Here, you should
restate the main ideas; summarize the main concepts or key arguments of the paper and reinforce it
without repeating or rewording the introduction or body of the paper; draw a conclusion based on
the information; and include suggested courses of action and possible solutions or recommendations.

Sample: Conclusion of Position Paper titled: COVID-19 Position Paper: A Multidimensional

Crisis that Affects All - A Position Paper written by the European Students’ Union

Conclusion
Europe and the United States are currently the epicenter of the
epidemic, but the pandemic poses a huge risk of expanding the COVID-19
crisis to the global south and to areas of the world with low capacity of the
healthcare systems or fragile economic conditions. The European Students’
Union calls for a global response to the pandemic, with full access to reliable
information, discoveries on the virus, its remedies and vaccines, as well as a
common response to the developing economic crisis.
This needs to be ensured through the coordination of global
organisations such as the United Nations and the World Health Organisation,
as well as the intergovernmental economic coordination fora. The European
Students’ Union supports the call of the UN Secretary General for a
worldwide ceasefire to commonly fight against the virus. Furthermore, ESU
commits itself to engage with the student organisations of the other continents
to share the experience of students and the mistakes of the handling of the
epidemic in Europe and to shape a common position of the Global Students
Forum on how to protect students in this crisis and respond to it, and how to
ensure a socially fair, green and sustainable recovery for our society as a
whole.

* Disclaimer: In order to adhere to the stylistic elements of academic writing,

the authors modified the in-text citation format in the sample position paper.

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RESEARCH-BASED DOCUMENTED ESSAY

A research-based documented essay is a

piece of writing in which the authors
incorporate information such as facts,
arguments, and opinions taken from the
writings of authorities in a particular field.

This type of paper presents and

supports the thesis by relying on outside or
secondary sources for development. It is similar
to a review of literature on the account that the
authors synthesize and identify the gaps in the
writings of authorities in specific fields and
then generate a new thesis statement out of
them.

Guidelines in Writing a Research-Based Documented Paper

Just like a socio-political analysis paper and a position paper, crafting a strong research-
based documented essay depends largely on its structure and understanding of the role of each
component of the paper.

A Clear Introduction. The paper should begin with introductory paragraphs that introduce
your readers to the problem or question you are addressing, lay out the thesis statement, and
provide them a “roadmap” on how you will defend your thesis. In the introduction, you may likewise
present a general background information or provide your own motivation for writing.

The Clever Hook. The introduction should start with two paragraphs written in a way that
catches your readers’ attention. This part will not only identify the subject of the
paper but it will likewise make the readers want to learn more about the subject.

The Identified Issue. The third paragraph of the introduction should show the main issue of
the paper. Here, you give the highlight and interpretation of facts.

The Authors’ Position. The introduction should end with a solid thesis statement that
expresses your position on the topic. The thesis statement essentially serves as a
mini-outline for the paper. It helps you to assert or articulate your ideas and helps
readers understand the purpose of the paper.

Sample: Introduction of a Research-based Documented Essay titled: Defying Convention: An

Explanation of China’s Explosive Economic Growth - A Research-based Documented
Essay written by David A. Rezvani, from the Dartmouth’s Institute for Writing and
Rhetoric - First Year Writing Portfolios

Introduction
Since the Deng Xiaoping reforms of 1978, China has soared into a rarified
atmosphere of explosive economic growth, skyrocketing past the wisdom of
conventional economics in its wake. What explains China’s remarkable economic
growth despite its centralized authoritarian regime and limited economic
freedom? Why has China developed in such a meteoric manner while other
countries that lack similar economic freedom remain mired in swamps of
transition? Effective and pragmatic central leadership helped create a
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developmental state set to drive economic growth by implementing gradual
reforms through experimentation rather than neo-liberal economic shock
therapies that plagued similar developing nations such as the Soviet Union in
the 1980s. Many scholars have also produced different explanations and two
chief contending schools of thought have materialized. In this essay, the two
competing schools of thought are designed as Decentralization: Federalism,
Chinese Style and Foreign Investment Driven Growth, which focus on the effects
of decentralization and foreign investment on China’s economic growth,
respectively. In direct contrast, the author will argue for the instrumental role of
centralized leadership as the principal catalyst behind China’s explosive
economic prosperity. China’s extraordinary economic boom was catalyzed by a
gradual reform process under the leadership of a strong and pragmatic central
party.

The author will begin the essay by making essential qualifications to the
argument for the critical role of centralized leadership to China’s economic
growth. Subsequently, the author will focus on discussing the logic and
shortcomings of two competing schools of thought designated as
Decentralization: Federalism, Chinese Style, and Foreign Investment. Following
the refutation of the two chief contending schools of thought, the essay will
launch into the argument for critical role of central leadership in the
implementation of gradual market-oriented reforms and their paramount effects
on China’s explosive economic growth. Lastly, the strong counter-argument
related to economic freedom and rule of law in terms of growth and development
will be challenged and refuted.

Before the author embark upon developing the argument for the role of
centralized leadership behind’s China’s remarkable economic growth, he must
make some qualifying statements that will dispel immediate counter-arguments
that do not pertain to the author’s thesis. First of all, the author not advocating
for an authoritarian regime in terms of sustained economic growth. Instead, he
makes the case that effective and centralized authoritarian leadership was the
root cause and catalyzed China’s economic development from 1978 to the early
2000s. It may very well be the case that a democratic government would be
more conducive to further sustained growth in the future, but that lies outside
the scope of this paper. This paper aims to explain why China’s economic
development was so extraordinary and successful. Secondly, there is a distinct
and significant difference between a centrally-planned economy and the
author’s argument for a centralized government with gradual market reform
policies. A centrally-planned economy disregards all market principles and
economic freedom, while the author’s thesis instead focuses on the role of
effective centralized leadership in implementing gradual market-oriented
reforms.

In the following section, the author will discuss, analyze, and refute two
major schools of thought that compete against the proposed thesis. By doing so,
the author plans to expose the weaknesses of the scholarly arguments in favor of
the impact of decentralization and foreign investment on stimulating China’s
economic growth. In fact, as the author’s discussion and analysis will clearly
show, many of their arguments actually support the author’s proposed thesis of
centralized leadership as the principal catalyst behind the remarkable economic
growth.

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* Disclaimer: In order to adhere to the stylistic elements of academic writing,
the authors modified the in-text citation format and the point of view used in
the sample research-based documented essay.

A Well-organized Body. The body of the paper follows the introduction. It is the nerve center of the
paper where you develop your thesis and defend it with detailed evidences. The structure of the
body should follow the roadmap that you have provided in the introduction. It must be structured
logically so that each point and paragraph flows from the preceding one. In writing the body, you
may consider the two approaches in arranging your arguments.

You can start with the most significant points or with the strongest arguments and end with
the least significant arguments. Likewise, you can start by presenting the least significant points
and end with the strongest one. It is noteworthy to mention that every argument should be
expressed in a distinct paragraph to avoid confusion among readers.

Moreover, since documented articles entails evidence, facts, and opinion, you need to back up
your arguments with quotes extracted from a scholarly source to induce the target audience’s mind.
You should accurately and thoroughly inform the readers what has already been published about
the issue or others related to it and noted important gaps in the research. You should provide
evidence to support your argument that the readers find convincing. The paper includes a
description of how and why particular evidence was collected and analyzed, and why specific
theoretical arguments or concepts were used.

The following structure is typical of a good research-based documented essay:

First Argument
First Piece of Evidence - presents a synthesis and identifies the gap/s in the writings
of authorities in a specific field extracted from a scholarly source, statistical
data, interviews with experts, and indisputable dates or events;

Second Piece of Evidence - presents a synthesis and identifies the gap/s in the
writings of authorities in a specific field extracted from a scholarly source,
statistical data, interviews with experts, and indisputable dates or events;

Second Argument
First Piece of Evidence - presents a synthesis and identifies the gap/s in the writings
of authorities in a specific field extracted from a scholarly source, statistical
data, interviews with experts, and indisputable dates or events;

Second Piece of Evidence - presents a synthesis and identifies the gap/s in the
writings of authorities in a specific field extracted from a scholarly source,
statistical data, interviews with experts, and indisputable dates or events;

Third Argument
First Piece of Evidence - presents a synthesis and identifies the gap/s in the writings
of authorities in a specific field extracted from a scholarly source, statistical
data, interviews with experts, and indisputable dates or events;

Second Piece of Evidence - presents a synthesis and identifies the gap/s in the
writings of authorities in a specific field extracted from a scholarly source,
statistical data, interviews with experts, and indisputable dates or events;

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Counter-argument
Evidence from Source(s) - present syntheses and quotes extracted from a scholarly
source, statistical data, interviews with experts, and indisputable dates or
events as your best alternative explanations or counter-arguments;

Evidence from Sources(s) to refute opposing view/s - present syntheses and quotes
extracted from a scholarly source, statistical data, interviews with experts, and
indisputable dates or events as your best alternative explanations or counter-
arguments; and

Finally, generate your new thesis statement based on the cited syntheses and gaps as
well as from the information that support your thesis statement.

Sample: Body of a Research-based Documented Essay titled: Defying Convention: An

Explanation of China’s Explosive Economic Growth - A Research-based Documented
Essay written by David A. Rezvani, from the Dartmouth’s Institute for Writing and
Rhetoric - First Year Writing Portfolios

An Except of the Body of a Research-Based Documented Essay

Addressing the Lack of Rule of Law and Economic Freedom Counter-argument.

There is a near consensus in economic literature that shows policies

characterized by economic freedom promotes high levels of economic growth.
Economic freedom entails the essential concepts of “a small government,
protection of private property, a well-functioning legal system, free competition
and few regulations.” Milton Friedman asserted that “I believe that free societies
have arisen and persisted only because economic freedom is so much more
productive economically than other methods of controlling economic activity.”
Hanke and Walters studied the relationship between economic freedom and GDP
per capita and found it significant and positive.

Goldsmith used the EFI (Economic Freedom Index) and showed that
developing countries that protect economic rights tend to grow faster, have
higher degrees of human well-being, and have a higher national income.
Moreover, people often point to the Asian economic powerhouses of Taiwan,
Japan, and South Korea as beaming examples of the economic growth propelled
by economic freedom under democratic regimes, and utilize them in refutation of
the role of an authoritarian, central party in economic development, such as that
of China. Taiwan is a multi-party, liberal democracy that is ranked highly in
terms of economic freedom and liberty of press as an advanced industrial
economy. Similarly, Japan is a multi-party parliamentary representative
democratic constitutional monarchy while South Korea is democratic
constitutional republic – both of which are high-income advanced economies.

These are all significant arguments against China’s economic growth, as

China lacks privatization of state enterprises, de-regulation, and rule of law. The
underlying authoritarian political philosophy that eschews democracy, rule of
law, and individual rights are in direct contrast to conventional economic
wisdom. Yet despite all the apparent contradictions, China experienced a GDP
averaging about 10 percent per year since reforms began in 1978, lifting more
than 500 million people out of poverty. In contrast, the average GDP growth of
all of South Asia was only 3.87 % and that of Sub-Saharan Africa was a
miniscule 0.23 % during a similar timeframe. Clearly, conventional economic
wisdoms has its flaws, especially regarding developing economies because 1) the
absolute importance of economic freedom and rule of law in economic growth has
been overstated, and 2) despite their current democratic status, the Asian “Tiger”

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Economies were all under the rule of a one-party, centralized regime during the
period of initial and explosive economic growth, further emphasizing the
importance of a central party.

The role of economic freedom in relation to economic growth and

development has been overstated. Empirical studies have found that although
greater economic freedom fosters economic growth, the level of economic
freedom, however, is not related to growth. In the words of the de Haan and
Sturm, “Our findings suggests that more economic freedom will bring countries
more quickly to their steady level of economic growth (if they are below that
level), but that the level of steady state growth is not affected by the level of
economic freedom.” Even the authors themselves were surprised and admitted
that, “this finding is not entirely in line with the view of the proponents of
liberalization.” Although the conclusion might be shocking at first, it makes
perfect sense as reflected by China. China’s gradual reforms starting in 1978
specifically targeted increasing economic freedoms in the agricultural sector and
market liberalizations for foreign investors, which catalyzed its path to a steadily
strong level of economic growth. Thus, once that stage was reached, the level of
economic freedom became insignificant.

Similarly, in his book dedicated to economic growth histories of

developing countries Dani Rodrik concluded, “The onset of economic growth does
not require deep and extensive institutional reform.” In other words,
institutional reforms such as rule of law, rather than rule of man, is unnecessary
to initiate economic growth. Furthermore, a study by Allen, Qian, and Qian,
concluded that “there exist informal financing channels and governance
mechanisms, such as those based on reputation and relationships” to support
China’s economic growth. Thus, although China may lack comprehensive formal
rule of law mechanisms and channels, there were extensive informal channels
that served as “excellent substitutes for standard corporate mechanisms,”
offering investors strong protection.

Furthermore, the counter-argument that attributes the economic success

of the Asian “Tigers” of Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea, and Japan to their
democratic regimes is misguided because all four nations were under centralized,
one-party rule during their initial stage of economic development. Beginning in
the 1960s, the GDP growth of the four nations averaged 7.5 percent per year for
three decades. From 1961 to 1979, South Korea was under the rule of Park
Chung-Hee, who established a strong authoritarian rule of a one-party regime.
As he said himself, “Democracy cannot be realized without an economic
revolution.” Park also formulated specific “Five-Year Plans” for gradual economic
reforms that were later emulated by Chinese leadership. Similarly, Taiwan was
under the military rule of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek when he implemented
gradual market reforms in agriculture and trade. The post WWII economic
miracle in Japan was spurred by economic policy under the centralized
leadership of the Ministry of International Trade and Industry that heavily
regulated development. Thus, a World Bank report admitted that the non-
democratic and authoritarian political systems during the early years of
development were instrumental in the so-called Asian “economic miracle.” These
examples of the economic miracles of the East Asian countries further support
my argument for the critical role of centralized leadership in initial economic
development, analogous to the authoritative parenting style that raises the most
successful children.

Lastly, the author must briefly refute Paul Krugman’s 1994 article, The
Myth of Asia’s Miracle, which generated significant publicity as Krugman boldly
asserted that the impressive growth rates of the East Asian economies were a
myth and un-sustainable because the rapid growth was achieved “in large part
through an astonishing mobilizing of resources” and “rapid growth in inputs.”
However, Krugman failed to realize that the astonishing mobilization of
resources is only capable because of the centralized regimes that have the power
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to authorize this type of massive resource mobilization. Furthermore, his
argument that there was no sign of increased economic efficiency in terms of
total factor productivity is flawed, especially applied to China, as Bosworth and
Collins found TPF growth in China that was higher than the developing world as
a whole. This was a result of gradual reforms that focused on improving
economic efficiency through acquisition of foreign technology and efficient
resource allocation. Thus, Krugman’s argument clearly has its limitations,
especially when applied to the case of China.

* Disclaimer: In order to adhere to the stylistic elements of academic writing, the

authors modified the in-text citation format and the point of view used in the sample
research-based documented essay.

A Strong Conclusion. The last component of the paper is the conclusion. Here, you should:

• restate the main ideas;

• summarize the main concepts or key arguments of the paper and reinforce it without
repeating or rewording the introduction or body of the paper;
• draw a conclusion based on the information; and
• include suggested courses of action and possible solutions or recommendations.

Sample: Conclusion of a Research-based Documented Essay titled: Defying

Convention: An Explanation of China’s Explosive Economic Growth - A Research-
based Documented Essay written by David A. Rezvani, from the Dartmouth’s
Institute for Writing and Rhetoric - First Year Writing Portfolios

Conclusion

This documented essay aimed to answer the essential question: What

explains China’s remarkable economic growth during the reform era? To begin,
the two chief contending schools of thought designated as Decentralization:
Federalism, Chinese Style and Foreign Investment were refuted and shown to be
inappropriate and insufficient when applied to analysis of China’s extraordinary
economic growth. The argument of the decentralization school is flawed because
both the effect of decentralization on economic growth and the extent of
decentralization in China have been overstated and over-exaggerated. The fatal
weakness of the foreign investment school of thought was exposed by examining
the fundamental dependency of foreign investment upon the quality of human
capital in terms of stimulating economic growth. In reality, the principle driver
behind China’s remarkable economic growth was the gradual reform process
under the leadership of a strong and pragmatic central party. Effective central
leadership created a developmental state set to drive economic growth by
implementing gradual reforms through experimentation rather than neo-liberal
economic shock therapies. The gradual market-oriented reforms under pragmatic
central leadership are the sparks that ignited China’s explosive economic boom,
in defiance of all conventions.

* Disclaimer: In order to adhere to the stylistic elements of academic writing,

the authors modified the in-text citation format and the point of view used in
the sample research-based documented essay.

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