Lesson 6: Communication for Academic Purposes

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to achieve the following:
1. Identify and apply the different stylistic elements of good academic writing.
2. Develop a socio-political analysis paper or a position paper.
3. Write a research-based documented essay observing stylistic conventions of academic
writing.

Academic Writing
Academic writing refers to a style of expression that researchers use to define the
intellectual boundaries of their disciplines and specific areas of expertise. It is designed to
convey agreed meaning about complex ideas or concepts for a group of scholarly experts.

STYLISTIC ELEMENTS OF GOOD ACADEMIC WRITING

The accepted form of academic writing in diverse disciplines can vary considerably
depending on the intended audience and the organizational outline. However, most
university-level academic papers require careful attention to the following stylistic
elements:

The Overall View. Unlike journalistic or fiction writing, the overall structure of academic
writing is formal and logical. Thus, it is important to take note of the following points:

● The paper must be cohesive and possess a logically organized flow of ideas -- this
suggests that the various parts are connected to form a unified whole.
● There should be transitional devices or narrative links between sentences and
paragraphs so that the reader will be able to follow your argument.
● The introduction should include an explanation of how the rest of the paper is
organized and all sources are properly cited throughout the paper.

Language. The analysis of research problems in diverse disciplines is often complex and
multi-dimensional. Hence, it is significant that you use language that fits your audience and
matches your purpose. Inappropriate language uses can undermine your argument,
damage your credibility, or alienate your audience. Here are some points to remember:
● The key to successful writing focuses on the levels of formality and conciseness that
underscores writing in a style that your audience expects and that fits your purpose.
● Use clear topic sentences and well-structured paragraphs to enable readers to
follow your line of thinking without difficulty.
● Avoid using in-group jargons or specialized language used by groups of like-minded
individuals. You have to bear in mind that you only use in-group jargon when you are
writing for members of that group. You should never use jargon for a general
audience without first explaining it.
● Avoid using slang or idiomatic expressions in general academic writing.
 ● Avoid using euphemisms or words that veil the truth and other deceitful language.
● Avoid using biased language including language with a racial, ethnic, group, or
gender bias or language that is stereotypical.

Academic Tone. The overall tone refers to the writer's voice in a written work. It is what the
readers might perceive as the writer's attitude, bias, or personality. When writing in an
academic tone, you must take into consideration the following points:
● Present the arguments of others objectively and with an appropriate narrative tone.
● Describe these arguments accurately and without biased or loaded language
whenever you present an argument or a position that you disagree with.
● Investigate the research problem from an authoritative perspective.
● State the strong points of your arguments confidently by using language that is
neutral, not dismissive or confrontational.
● Avoid making broad generalizations, using over-sweeping adjectives, adverbs,
qualifiers, emotional language and inflammatory language.

Academic Diction. Academic diction refers to the linguistic choices a writer makes to
effectively convey an idea or a standpoint. When writing in an academic diction, you must
take note of the following points:
● Awareness of the words you use is vital because words that have almost the same
denotation or dictionary definition can have very different connotations or implied
meanings.
● Use concrete and specific words that convey precise meaning.
● Explain what you mean within the context of how that word or phrase is used within
a discipline.
● Be consistent with your labels. Call people what they want to be called. Use gender
inclusive language. Avoid placing gender identifiers in front of nouns.

❏ Avoid the use of the following:

o slang expressions (very informal language that is usually spoken rather than written, used
especially by particular groups of people);
o cliché phrases (ideas or expressions that have been used too often and is often
considered a sign of bad writing or old-fashioned thinking);
o metaphors or figures of speech (words or phrases used in a non-literal sense for rhetorical
or vivid effect);
o colloquialisms (common words or phrases used in a nontraditional and informal way);
o jargons (special words or expressions used by a particular profession or group and are
difficult for others to understand);
o big words (difficult words or phrases used for the sake of sounding scholarly);
o meaningless words (words or phrases that hold little meaning when you consider the
potentially diverse backgrounds of your reading audience);
o platitudes (clichés that also pretend to offer advice, lesson, or moral guidance);
o pejoratives (words or phrases that express the bias of the author);
o contractions (words made by shortening and combining two words), and text-messages
or short message service (SMS) spellings
o These casual expressions may be appropriate in informal or personal messages, but they
are inappropriate in academic research papers.
❏ Use personal pronouns carefully. Generally, you also want to avoid using the
personal "I" in an academic paper unless you are writing a reflection paper or a
reaction paper.
❏ Writing from the third-person point of view is important in academic research writing
because it makes your paper sounds more assertive, more professional and credible.

Punctuation. To establish the narrative tone of their work, scholars rely on precise words
and language. Thus, punctuation marks are used very deliberately.
● Semi-colons represent a pause that is longer than a comma, but shorter than a
period in a sentence. In general, there are four grammatical uses of semi-colons:
- when a second clause expands or explains the first clause;
- to describe a sequence of actions or different aspects of the same topic;
- placed before clauses which begin with “for instance”, “even so”, "nevertheless",
and "therefore"; and
- to mark off a series of phrases or clauses which contain commas.
If you are not confident about when to use semi-colons, rewrite using shorter sentences or
revise the paragraph.
● Colons should be limited to introducing, announcing or directing attention to a list, a
noun or noun phrase, a quotation, or an example/explanation; joining sentences; and
expressing time, in titles, and as part of other writing conventions.
● Hyphens should be limited to connecting prefixes to words like “multi-disciplinary” or
when forming compound words or phrases like “on-site” and “right-of-way.”
● Dashes should be limited to the insertion of an explanatory comment in a sentence.
● Exclamation points are rarely used to express a heightened tone because it can
come across as unsophisticated or over-excited.

Academic Conventions
The most important aspect of academic writing is citing sources in the body of your paper
and providing a list of references as either footnotes or endnotes. When considering
academic conventions, you must take into consideration the following points:
● It is essential to always acknowledge the source of any ideas, research findings, data,
paraphrased, or quoted text that you have used in your paper as a defense against
allegations of plagiarism.
● With reference to academic writing purposes, the guidelines for fair use are
reasonably explicit. This means that you may quote from or paraphrase material from
previously published works without formally obtaining the copyright holder’s
permission.
Fair use means that you legitimately use brief excerpts from source material to support and develop your own ideas.
However, quoting or paraphrasing another’s work at excessive length, to the extent that large sections of the writing
are unoriginal, is not fair use.

● Rules concerning precise word structure and excellent grammar do not apply when
quoting someone. To set off and represent exact language either spoken or written
that has come from somebody else is the primary function of quotation marks. Direct
quotations involve incorporating another person's exact words into your own writing.
● The following covers the basic use of quotation marks:
- Quotation marks always come in pairs. Do not open a quotation and fail to close it
at the end of the quoted material;
- Capitalize the first letter of a direct quote when the quoted material is a complete
sentence;
- Do not use a capital letter when the quoted material is a fragment or only a piece of
the original material's complete sentence;
- If a direct quotation is interrupted mid-sentence, do not capitalize the second part
of the quotation;
- Note that the period or comma punctuation always comes before the final
quotation mark. However, it is important to realize also that when you are using some other
form of documentation, this punctuation rule may change;
- When quoting text with a spelling or grammar error, you should transcribe the error
exactly in your own text. However, also insert the term sic in italics directly after the mistake,
and enclose it in brackets. Sic is from the Latin, and translates to "thus," "so," or "just as that."
The word tells the readers that your quote is an exact reproduction of what you found, and
the error is not your own;
- When there is a quote within a quotation, enclose the inner quote in single
quotation marks and the whole quotation in double quotation marks;
- Direct quotations which run to less than five lines are integrated in the text and
simply enclosed in quotation marks;
- Quoted material that runs from five or more lines are indented seven spaces,
italicized, and typed single space. The quotation is also indented at least four spaces from
the right-hand margin. No quotation marks are used; and
- Quotations are most effective if you use them sparingly and keep them relatively
short. Too many quotations in a research paper will get you accused of not producing
original thought or material.
● The scholarly convention of citing sources allows readers to identify the resources
you used in writing your paper so they can independently verify and assess the
quality of findings and conclusions based on your review of the literature.
● Other examples of academic conventions to follow include the appropriate use of
headings and subheadings, properly spelling out acronyms when first used in the
text, and avoiding unsupported declarative statements.

Evidence-Based Reasoning
 ● Coursework often asks you to express your own standpoint about the research
problem. However, what is valued in academic writing is that viewpoints or opinions
are based on what is often termed, evidence-based reasoning. This type of
reasoning underscores the following:
● A sound understanding of the pertinent body of knowledge and academic debates
that exist within, and often external to your discipline;
● The need to support your opinion with evidence from scholarly sources;
● An objective stance presented as a logical argument;
● The quality of your evidence will determine the strength of your argument; and
● The challenge is to convince the reader of the validity of your opinion through a
well-documented, coherent, and logically structured piece of writing, which is
particularly important when proposing solutions to problems or delineating
recommended courses of action.

Thesis-Driven.​ Academic writing is “thesis-driven.” This implies the following:

● The starting point is a particular perspective, idea, or position applied to the chosen
topic of investigation, such as, establishing, proving, or disproving solutions to the
research questions posed for the topic.
● A problem statement without the research questions does not qualify as academic
writing because simply identifying the research problem does not establish for the
reader how you will contribute to solving the problem, what aspects you believe are
most critical, or suggest a method for gathering data to better understand the
problem.

Complexity and Higher-Order Thinking. Academic writing addresses multifaceted issues

that require higher-order thinking skills applied to understanding the research problem such
as creative, critical, logical, and reflective thinking as opposed to, for example, prescriptive
or descriptive thinking. When considering complexity and higher-order thinking skills, you
must take note of the following:
● Cognitive processes that describe abstract ideas that cannot be easily shown with
images, pointed to, or acted out and are used to express concepts, to comprehend,
and to solve problems comprise higher-order thinking skills.
● Reflect on this: One of the most significant attributes of a good teacher is the ability
to explain complexity in a way that is understandable and relatable to the topic being
presented. This is also one of the main purposes of academic writing -- examining
and explaining the significance of complex ideas as clearly as
● possible.
● As a writer, you must adopt the role of a good teacher by summarizing a lot of
complex information into a well-organized synthesis of ideas, concepts, and
recommendations that contribute to a better understanding of the research problem.

Refining Academic Writing

To improve your academic writing skills, you should focus your efforts on four key areas:
Clear Writing. The act of thinking about precedes the process of writing about. Good writers
spend sufficient time distilling information and reviewing major points from the literature
they have reviewed before creating their work. Writing detailed outlines can help you
clearly organize your thoughts. Effective academic writing begins with solid planning, so
manage your time carefully.
Excellent Grammar. Generally, English grammar can be difficult and complex; even the
best scholars take many years before they have a command of the major points of good
grammar. Take the time to learn the minor and major points of good grammar to avoid
presenting papers riddled with errors. Spend time practicing writing and seek detailed
feedback from professors. Good proofreading skills and proper punctuation can significantly
improve academic writing.
Credible and Scholarly Sources. Credibility is defined as the quality or power of inspiring
belief. Credible sources, therefore, must be reliable sources that provide information that
one can believe to be true. It is important to use credible sources in an academic research
paper because your audience will expect you to have backed up your assertions with
credible evidence. The five best resources to help you in writing a research paper include:
your University’s Library; Google Scholar, RefSeek, the Internet Public Library (ipl2), and the
Education Resources Information Center (ERIC).

● Your University’s Library provides you access to several resources such as online
databases, e-books, books, journals, and other research articles.
● Google Scholar is a resource that provides you a list of journal articles, portable
document formats (pdfs), and websites focusing on much more credible and
scholarly sources appropriate for an academic research paper.
● RefSeek is a resource that allows you to research specifically for documents, giving
you a better chance of finding credible information to help you write your research
paper.
● Internet Public Library (ipl2) is a resource that allows you to search by subject. It links
to websites, rather than scholarly journals.
● Education Resources Information Center (ERIC) is a database that primarily focuses
on education, but it also includes a number of related topics such as psychology,
social work, and other social issues.

On the other hand, you must refrain from using the following sources when writing an
academic research paper: The Dictionary, About.com, and Wikipedia.com, as well as other
Wikis.
● The Dictionary is a good sources; however, it could not provide you with a more
specialized definition of terms needed in an academic research paper.
● About.com could provide useful information such as novel ideas and information
related to fashion, health, sports, entertainment and the like. However, such
information is irrelevant to academic research writing.
 ● Wikipedia.com and other Wikis are also good websites; however, the problem with
them is that anyone can write and edit them, hence you cannot vouch for the
credibility of the given information.
Consistent Stylistic Approach. When your professor expresses a preference to use the
American Psychological Association (APA) style, or the Modern Language Association (MLA)
style or the Chicago Manual of Style, choose the suggested style guide and stick to it. Each
of these style guides provide rules on how to write out numbers, references, citations,
footnotes, and lists. Consistent adherence to a style of writing helps with the narrative flow
of your paper and improves its readability.

ACADEMIC PAPERS

SOCIO-POLITICAL ANALYSIS PAPER

A socio-political analysis paper can be defined as an analysis of the economic, social, and
political factors that shape a particular country or situation and how these factors impact the
lives and thoughts of the people. It is considered a powerful tool for understanding how
countries work and what might be done to help them cope with their challenges in order to
reform and to set their priorities in a way that make them more likely to succeed.

Guidelines in Writing a Socio-Political Analysis Paper

Crafting a strong socio-political analysis paper depends largely on its structure and
understanding of the role of each component of the paper.

A Clear Introduction. The paper should begin with introductory paragraphs that introduce
your readers to the problem or question you are addressing; lay out the thesis statement;
and provide them a “roadmap” on how you will defend your thesis. In the introduction, you
may likewise present a general background information or provide your own motivation for
writing.

The Problem. The problem refers to the wider subject or question you are trying to
address with your paper. You may situate your more specific argument within a broader
problem that states why your paper is relevant economically, socially and politically.

The Thesis​. An argumentative thesis statement is not synonymous to the topic of the
paper, nor a statement of fact, nor an observation about the text so obvious or general that
no one would dispute it. Rather, it is an argument or a declaration of what you will
accomplish in the paper. Typically, a thesis takes the form of one to two sentences placed
towards the end of the introductory paragraph.

The Roadmap. The roadmap is a plan that follows the thesis statement. It operates
like a preview of the paper’s main points which is presented in logical order. Such a plan is
highly encouraged on the account that it not only lends clarity to the structure of your
argument, but also provides a check for the logical coherence of the points you make.
Sample Introduction: Underlying Socio-Political Processes Behind the 2016 US Election-
A Socio-political Analysis Paper written by John Bryden and Eric Silverman (2019)

Introduction
Donald Trump’s victory in the GOP primaries and the Presidential race surprised
political analysts and confounded pollsters. Trump achieved this victory via a populist
campaign which incorporated racially-charged and misogynistic language (Brexit, 2017 and
Valentino et al., 2018). This unusual campaign shifted the direction of the GOP and the US
right-wing toward the far-right of the political spectrum (Valentino et al., 2018). An important
factor behind this success was the campaign’s use of social media communication channels,
especially Twitter (Francia, 2017).

Twitter, and social media in general, have become important tools for politicians and
their followers to spread political messages (Bennett, 2003; Farrell & Drezner, 2008; Sunstein,
2009; Conover et al. 2012; and Duggan & Smith, 2016). The hierarchical structures commonly
found in social media networks mean that well-connected politicians act as hub nodes, with
information and influence spreading outward over the network. Political parties form clusters
which reside at the centre of these networks (Farrell & Drezner, 2008; Duggan & Smith, 2016;
Vergeer, 2015; and Jungherr, 2016). As intra-party discourse is increasingly taking place online,
traditional boundaries between politicians, activists, party-members and members of the public
have become increasingly blurred.

The increased openness of parties moving their political discourse online has
undoubted benefits for transparency and accountability. The concern is the opportunity this
provides for an external group to target the online presence of a political party, and then start
to dictate their political direction. The ability of a minority group to rapidly generate a new
political faction and take control of a major political party in this way can cause problems for
democracy (Hume, 2002; and Linz & Stepan, 1978). Such a novel process would differ radically
from more traditional models of dynamics amongst political elites who occupy different
internal factions of a party (Hume, 2002; and Harmel et al.,1995), moving to a model whereby
external factions play a stronger role (Harmel et al., 1995; Zariski, 1960; and Budge et al., 2010).
In this work, the author looks for evidence of an external group influencing the online presence
of the GOP in the run up to the 2016 election and how this can explain the shift in the party’s
direction.

The authors’ work seeks to understand how communities of activists might provoke
such a significant shift in the attitudes and rhetoric of a major political party. The authors
looked for how political activists organised themselves and their political messaging, and how
these aspects changed over time. Likewise, the authors did this by examining Twitter data in
the context of the 2016 election, given that Twitter has been shown to reflect US national
polling aggregates accurately (Bovet et al., 2018). By studying these changes, the authors can
analyse and document shifting allegiances during the election cycle, and the roles of different
factors driving these dynamics.

* Note: The GOP or the Grand Old Party also refers to The Republican Party.
* Disclaimer: In order to adhere to the stylistic elements of academic writing, the authors
modified the in-text citation format and the point of view used in the sample socio-political
analysis paper.

A Well-organized Body. The body of the paper follows the introduction. It is in this
part where you develop your thesis and defend it with detailed evidence. The structure of
the body should follow the roadmap that you have provided in the introduction. It must be
structured logically so that each point and paragraph flows from the preceding one.
In writing the body, you should take into consideration the main defenses that you
need to make in order to substantiate your thesis and should think about what order makes
the most sense; how does each proposition relate to the next; and their relationship to the
main thesis. Frequently, the last section of the body of the paper considers alternative
explanations or counter-arguments to yours which you present and then argue against in
further defense of your thesis. This is not always necessary, but in a socio-political analysis
paper, it is often a good way to defend your thesis from others’ best counter-arguments.

Sample: Body of a Socio-Political Analysis Paper titled: Underlying Socio-Political

Processes Behind the 2016 US Election - A Socio-political Analysis Paper written by John
Bryden and Eric Silverman (2019)

An Excerpt of the Body of a Socio-Political Analysis Paper

To study social and socio-political processes, the authors’ method incorporates two key
novel aspects. First, an innovative sampling procedure which allows them to target and
download key groups of interest. Second, their generated data shows how groups evolve over
time, including the shifting allegiances of group members. Since these data are dynamic
networks, this approach can enhance their understanding of dynamic social processes. While
much modelling work has been done (Gross & Blasius, 2008; Bryden et al., 2011; Mantovani et
al., 2011; Ramos et al., 2015; and Böttcher et al., 2018), the next step is to bring these models to
data such as that presented in this work (Lazer et al., 2009; Lazer et al., 2010; Gonçalves &
Perra, 2015; and Weaver (2018).
Given the self-selecting nature of Twitter groups, the authors may be concerned that the
groups they have found may not truly reflect the position of the party’s base. However, the high
levels of intra-group connections are representative of an interconnected political party
(Conover et al., 2012; and Bryden et al., 2013). The behaviour observed in this sample during the
2016 election cycle does match the behaviour seen during the rise of the Tea Party and victory
of Trump in the primary elections. The sample here was targeted initially at the Alt-right, but the
authors found connected accounts which were also associated with the right-wing of both the
US and other countries, suggesting that the sample has captured a wide swathe of right-wing
political communication and not just fringe groups or extremist individuals. The sample also
went beyond the right-wing political sphere and sampled a loosely intra-connected group of
general Twitter accounts (see group marked * in Fig 1), indicating that it had captured a
comprehensive picture of those accounts associated with the US right-wing.
Social media has continued to expand its influence over the political process (Bennett,
2003; Farrell & Drezner, 2008; Sunstein, 2009; Conover et al., 2012; Duggan & Smith, 2016;
Vergeer, 2015; Jungherr, 2016; and Bovet et al., 2018). These technologies enable individuals to
easily connect with one another, based on shared political opinions. It follows that they are
likely to be playing a strong role in recent social-political movements by allowing politicians to
rally disaffected individuals. At the very least, social media data allow the authors to observe
the processes behind changing political factions. Understanding these processes, and how
they happen is critically important to understanding modern democracy and voter’s behaviour,
and the method marks a step change in how political factions can be identified, analysed, and
tracked.
* Disclaimer: In order to adhere to the stylistic elements of academic writing, the authors
modified the in-text citation format and the point of view used in the sample socio-political
analysis paper.

A Strong Conclusion. The last component of the paper is the conclusion. Here, you should
restate the main ideas; summarize the main concepts or key arguments of the paper and
reinforce it without repeating or rewording the introduction or body of the paper; draw a
conclusion based on the information; and include suggested courses of action and possible
solutions or recommendations.

Sample: Conclusion of a Socio-Political Analysis Paper titled: Underlying Socio-Political

Processes Behind the 2016 US Election - A Socio-political Analysis Paper written by John
Bryden and Eric Silverman (2019)
Conclusion
Donald Trump’s ascent to the Presidency has prompted a great deal of effort amongst
pollsters, political scientists and social scientists to unearth the reasons for his unexpected
success. Here, the authors provide a method to follow the shifts in group membership and
influence that can occur in political parties, and in so doing provide indicators of impending
moves toward extremism within those parties. The results fit into a picture where the Trump
campaign’s mobilisation of a targeted group of supporters more than made up for Clinton’s
funding advantage (Böttcher et al., 2018; and Melo (2018): A significant shift in the US political
landscape. With that in mind, developing a more robust understanding of how political factions
can be identified and analysed can give readers a way to follow these fast-appearing and
highly-motivated supporter groups, and their influence on politics.
* Disclaimer: In order to adhere to the stylistic elements of academic writing, the authors
modified the in-text citation format and the point of view used in the sample socio-political
analysis paper.

POSITION PAPER
 The position paper aims to generate support on an issue. It describes the authors’ or
organization’s position on an issue and the rationale for that position. It is based on facts that
provide a solid foundation for the authors’ argument.
In the position paper the authors should use evidence to support position, such as
statistical evidence or indisputable dates and events; validate position with authoritative
references or primary source quotations; examine the strengths and weaknesses of the
position; and evaluate possible solutions and suggest courses of action.

Guidelines in Writing a Position Paper

Just like a socio-political analysis paper, crafting a strong position paper depends
largely on its structure and understanding of the role of each component of the paper.

A Clear Introduction. The paper should begin with introductory paragraphs that
introduce your readers to the problem or question you are addressing, lay out the thesis
statement or main position, and provide readers with a “roadmap” on how you will defend
your thesis. In the introduction, you may likewise present a general background information
or provide your own motivation for writing.

The Clever Hook. The introduction should start with statements written in a way that
catches your readers’ attention. This part will not only identify the subject of the paper but it
will likewise make the readers want to learn more about the subject.

The Identified Issue. The third part of the introduction should show the main issue of
the paper. Here you give the highlight and interpretation of facts.

The Authors’ Position. The introduction should end with a solid thesis statement that
expresses your position on the topic. The thesis statement essentially serves as a
mini-outline for the paper. It helps you to assert or articulate your ideas and helps readers
understand the purpose of the paper.

Sample: Introduction of a Position Paper titled: COVID-19 Position Paper: A

Multidimensional Crisis that Affects All - A Position Paper written by the European
Students’ Union
Introduction
The recent outbreak of COVID-19 is the gravest health crisis the world has seen in a
century. A significant proportion of asymptomatic carriers of the disease, often with mild
symptoms that can be confused for other illnesses, and a lack of sufficient testing makes it
extremely hard to accurately assess the number of infected people. The death toll and the
number of patients in urgent need of hospital treatment however is still exponentially
increasing in most affected areas (The Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine Website, 2020).
On Monday the 6th of April (06.04.2020), the World Health Organisation counts 1.133.758
reported cases and 62.784 deaths. Alongside with the United States, Europe remains an
epicentre of the global pandemic, with 621.407 confirmed cases (World Health Organization
Website, 2020).
These figures exploded in a matter of days, putting Europe’s national healthcare
systems in severe distress, with some (such as Italy’s and Spain’s) currently on the verge of
collapse. One reason for this is the slow pace and delays in taking action on part of the
European decision-makers, with crisis response starting in mid-March while international
spread started in January and major outbreaks outside China in mid-February. The current
political answer to ease the pressure on healthcare systems has included travel bans, closure
of frontiers (also within the Schengen area), schools, universities, public buildings, and
workplaces. Some of the most severely hit countries enforced a complete lockdown including
the shutdown of all non-essential economic activities.
The implications of this pan-European lockdown are rapidly transforming a health crisis
into an economic and social crisis. As a segment within wider society, students are hit in
multiple ways while facing potentially extreme social and economic distress deriving from the
response to the crisis.
* Disclaimer: In order to adhere to the stylistic elements of academic writing, the authors
modified the in-text citation format in the sample position paper.

A Well-organized Body. The body of the paper follows the introduction. It is the
nerve center of the paper where you develop your thesis and defend it with detailed
evidences. The structure of the body should follow the roadmap that you have provided in
the introduction. It must be structured logically so that each point and paragraph flows from
the preceding one.
In writing the body, you should take into consideration the main defenses that you
need to make in order to substantiate your thesis and should think about what order makes
the most sense, how does each proposition relate to the next, and their relationship to the
main thesis.
Frequently, the last section of the body of the paper considers alternative
explanations or counter-arguments to yours which you present and then argue against in
further defense of your thesis. This is not always necessary, but in position paper, it is often a
good way to defend your thesis from others’ best counter-arguments.
After providing a brief introduction of your organization or country and its history
concerning the topic, present the following typical contents of a good position paper:
● the issue and how it affects your organization or country;
● your country’s/organization’s policies with respect to the issue and your
organization’s/country’s justification for these policies;
● statistics to back up your organization’s/country’s position on the issue;
● actions taken by your organization/government with regard to the issue;
● reputable international, regional and/or national agencies’ actions that your
organization/country supported or opposed;
● what your organization/country believes should be done to address the
issue;
 ● what your organization/country would like to accomplish in the committee’s
resolution;
● how the positions of other organizations/countries affect your
organization’s/country’s position;
● and your best alternative explanations or counter-arguments.

Sample: Body of Position Paper titled: COVID-19 Position Paper: A

Multidimensional Crisis that Affects All - A Position Paper written by the European
Students’ Union

An Excerpt of the Body of a Position Paper

The European Council of the 26th March 2020: The decision to postpone any decisions.
Notwithstanding the urgency of the situation, the Eurogroup failed to come up with
concrete proposals to tackle the crisis and demanded the European Council to decide on the
way forward. The European Council on the 26th of March 2020, mainly dedicated to COVID-19,
endorsed stronger coordination to ease the movement of necessary goods, the pooling of
scientific resources to fight against the virus and the coordination for supplying medical
equipment where needed (Consilium.europa.eu Website, 2020).
With regard to the economic issues however, the Council decided to not decide. Instead,
it asked the Eurogroup to come up with “proposals [that] should take into account the
unprecedented nature of the COVID-19 shock affecting all our countries and our response will
be stepped up, as necessary, with further action in an inclusive way, in light of developments, in
order to deliver a comprehensive response”. Furthermore, the European Council invited the
Presidents of the European Council and the president of the European Commission to “start
working on a Roadmap accompanied by an Action Plan in order to develop “a coordinated exit
strategy, a comprehensive recovery plan and unprecedented investment” (Ec.europa.eu
Website, 2020).
The European Students’ Union believes that the future of its constituents – the students
it represents, lies in the well-being of the societies they live in, and in the economies, they are
going to contribute to once they finish their studies. ESU, therefore, welcomes the proposal of a
pan-European coordinated Action Plan for the economic recovery of the continent, and calls
on the EU to coordinate its efforts with the countries of the wider Europe. On the other hand,
ESU regrets the indecisiveness of the European heads of State and government in finding a
common joint proposal for financing the economic management of the crisis and the recovery
of its aftermath. ESU hopes that the given deadline of two weeks will provide the Eurogroup
and the European Council with the wisdom to understand that a common economic and
financial response to the crisis not only fulfils the commitment of solidarity within the EU, but is
also in the best interest of each Member State.
The European Students’ Union believes that the coronavirus crisis has shown the
importance of public investment in public goods such as welfare, education, research and
healthcare. ESU, therefore, calls for a central focus to the investment in public goods within the
Recovery Action Plan that will be proposed by the Presidents of the European Council and of
the European Commission. In most of the issues related to public goods, the European Union
has only supportive competences. The European Students’ Union envisages the Recovery
Action Plan as a coordinated framework of measures with clear Pan-European objectives. It
should be co-developed and implemented by the European Union and the Member States,
taking advantage of the economies of scale as well as the interdependencies and the spillover
effects that national measures have on the European economy as a whole.
* Disclaimer: In order to adhere to the stylistic elements of academic writing, the authors
modified the in-text citation format in the sample position paper.

RESEARCH-BASED DOCUMENTED ESSAY

A research-based documented essay is a piece of writing in which the authors
incorporate information such as facts, arguments, and opinions taken from the writings of
authorities in a particular field.
This type of paper presents and supports the thesis by relying on outside or
secondary sources for development. It is similar to a review of literature on the account that
the authors synthesize and identify the gaps in the writings of authorities in specific fields
and then generate a new thesis statement out of them.

Guidelines in Writing a Research-Based Documented Paper

Just like a socio-political analysis paper and a position paper, crafting a strong
research-based documented essay depends largely on its structure and understanding of
the role of each component of the paper.
A Clear Introduction. The paper should begin with introductory paragraphs that
introduce your readers to the problem or question you are addressing, lay out the thesis
statement, and provide them a “roadmap” on how you will defend your thesis. In the
introduction, you may likewise present a general background information or provide your
own motivation for writing.
● The Clever Hook. The introduction should start with two paragraphs written in
a way that catches your readers’ attention. This part will not only identify the
subject of the paper but it will likewise make the readers want to learn more
about the subject.
● The Identified Issue. The third paragraph of the introduction should show the
main issue of the paper. Here, you give the highlight and interpretation of
facts.
● The Authors’ Position. The introduction should end with a solid thesis
statement that expresses your position on the topic. The thesis statement
essentially serves as a mini-outline for the paper. It helps you to assert or
articulate your ideas and helps readers understand the purpose of the paper.

Sample: Introduction of a Research-based Documented Essay titled: Defying

Convention: An Explanation of China’s Explosive Economic Growth - A Research-based
Documented Essay written by David A. Rezvani, from the Dartmouth’s Institute for
Writing and Rhetoric - First Year Writing Portfolios
Introduction
Since the Deng Xiaoping reforms of 1978, China has soared into a rarified atmosphere
of explosive economic growth, skyrocketing past the wisdom of conventional economics in its
wake. What explains China’s remarkable economic growth despite its centralized authoritarian
regime and limited economic freedom? Why has China developed in such a meteoric manner
while other countries that lack similar economic freedom remain mired in swamps of
transition? Effective and pragmatic central leadership helped create a developmental state set
to drive economic growth by implementing gradual reforms through experimentation rather
than neo-liberal economic shock therapies that plagued similar developing nations such as the
Soviet Union in the 1980s. Many scholars have also produced different explanations and two
chief contending schools of thought have materialized. In this essay, the two competing
schools of thought are designed as Decentralization: Federalism, Chinese Style and Foreign
Investment Driven Growth, which focus on the effects of decentralization and foreign
investment on China’s economic growth, respectively. In direct contrast, the author will argue
for the instrumental role of centralized leadership as the principal catalyst behind China’s
explosive economic prosperity. China’s extraordinary economic boom was catalyzed by a
gradual reform process under the leadership of a strong and pragmatic central party.
The author will begin the essay by making essential qualifications to the argument for
the critical role of centralized leadership to China’s economic growth. Subsequently, the author
will focus on discussing the logic and shortcomings of two competing schools of thought
designated as Decentralization: Federalism, Chinese Style, and Foreign Investment. Following
the refutation of the two chief contending schools of thought, the essay will launch into the
argument for critical role of central leadership in the implementation of gradual
market-oriented reforms and their paramount effects on China’s explosive economic growth.
Lastly, the strong counter-argument related to economic freedom and rule of law in terms of
growth and development will be challenged and refuted.
Before the author embark upon developing the argument for the role of centralized
leadership behind’s China’s remarkable economic growth, he must make some qualifying
statements that will dispel immediate counter-arguments that do not pertain to the author’s
thesis. First of all, the author not advocating for an authoritarian regime in terms of sustained
economic growth. Instead, he makes the case that effective and centralized authoritarian
leadership was the root cause and catalyzed China’s economic development from 1978 to the
early 2000s. It may very well be the case that a democratic government would be more
conducive to further sustained growth in the future, but that lies outside the scope of this paper.
This paper aims to explain why China’s economic development was so extraordinary and
successful. Secondly, there is a distinct and significant difference between a centrally-planned
economy and the author’s argument for a centralized government with gradual market reform
policies. A centrally-planned economy disregards all market principles and economic freedom,
while the author’s thesis instead focuses on the role of effective centralized leadership in
implementing gradual market-oriented reforms.
 In the following section, the author will discuss, analyze, and refute two major schools of
thought that compete against the proposed thesis. By doing so, the author plans to expose the
weaknesses of the scholarly arguments in favor of the impact of decentralization and foreign
investment on stimulating China’s economic growth. In fact, as the author’s discussion and
analysis will clearly show, many of their arguments actually support the author’s proposed
thesis of centralized leadership as the principal catalyst behind the remarkable economic
growth.
* Disclaimer: In order to adhere to the stylistic elements of academic writing, the authors
modified the in-text citation format and the point of view used in the sample research-based
documented essay.

A Well-organized Body. The body of the paper follows the introduction. It is the nerve
center of the paper where you develop your thesis and defend it with detailed evidences.
The structure of the body should follow the roadmap that you have provided in the
introduction. It must be structured logically so that each point and paragraph flows from the
preceding one. In writing the body, you may consider the two approaches in arranging your
arguments.
You can start with the most significant points or with the strongest arguments and
end with the least significant arguments. Likewise, you can start by presenting the least
significant points and end with the strongest one. It is noteworthy to mention that every
argument should be expressed in a distinct paragraph to avoid confusion among readers.
Moreover, since documented articles entails evidence, facts, and opinion, you need
to back up your arguments with quotes extracted from a scholarly source to induce the
target audience’s mind. You should accurately and thoroughly inform the readers what has
already been published about the issue or others related to it and noted important gaps in
the research. You should provide evidence to support your argument that the readers find
convincing. The paper includes a description of how and why particular evidence was
collected and analyzed, and why specific theoretical arguments or concepts were used.

The following structure is typical of a good research-based documented essay:

First Argument

First Piece of Evidence - presents a synthesis and identifies the gap/s in the writings
of authorities in a specific field extracted from a scholarly source, statistical
data, interviews with experts, and indisputable dates or events;

Second Piece of Evidence - presents a synthesis and identifies the gap/s in the
writings of authorities in a specific field extracted from a scholarly source, statistical data,
interviews with experts, and indisputable dates or events;

Second Argument
 First Piece of Evidence - presents a synthesis and identifies the gap/s in the writings
of authorities in a specific field extracted from a scholarly source, statistical
data, interviews with experts, and indisputable dates or events;

Second Piece of Evidence - presents a synthesis and identifies the gap/s in the
writings of authorities in a specific field extracted from a scholarly source, statistical data,
interviews with experts, and indisputable dates or events;

Third Argument

First Piece of Evidence - presents a synthesis and identifies the gap/s in the writings
of authorities in a specific field extracted from a scholarly source, statistical
data, interviews with experts, and indisputable dates or events;

Second Piece of Evidence - presents a synthesis and identifies the gap/s in the
writings of authorities in a specific field extracted from a scholarly source, statistical data,
interviews with experts, and indisputable dates or events;

Counter-argument

Evidence from Source(s) - present syntheses and quotes extracted from a scholarly
source, statistical data, interviews with experts, and indisputable dates or events as your
best alternative explanations or counter-arguments;

Evidence from Sources(s) to refute opposing view/s - present syntheses and quotes
extracted from a scholarly source, statistical data, interviews with experts, and indisputable
dates or events as your best alternative explanations or counter-arguments; and

Finally, generate your new thesis statement based on the cited syntheses and gaps
as well as from the information that support your thesis statement.

Sample: Body of a Research-based Documented Essay titled: Defying Convention:

An Explanation of China’s Explosive Economic Growth - A Research-based Documented
Essay written by David A. Rezvani, from the Dartmouth’s Institute for Writing and
Rhetoric - First Year Writing Portfolios

An Except of the Body of a Research-Based Documented Essay

Addressing the Lack of Rule of Law and Economic Freedom Counter-argument.

There is a near consensus in economic literature that shows policies characterized by
economic freedom promotes high levels of economic growth. Economic freedom entails the
essential concepts of “a small government, protection of private property, a well-functioning
legal system, free competition and few regulations.” Milton Friedman asserted that “I believe
that free societies have arisen and persisted only because economic freedom is so much more
productive economically than other methods of controlling economic activity.” Hanke and
Walters studied the relationship between economic freedom and GDP per capita and found it
significant and positive.
Goldsmith used the EFI (Economic Freedom Index) and showed that developing
countries that protect economic rights tend to grow faster, have higher degrees of human
well-being, and have a higher national income. Moreover, people often point to the Asian
economic powerhouses of Taiwan, Japan, and South Korea as beaming examples of the
economic growth propelled by economic freedom under democratic regimes, and utilize them
in refutation of the role of an authoritarian, central party in economic development, such as
that of China. Taiwan is a multi-party, liberal democracy that is ranked highly in terms of
economic freedom and liberty of press as an advanced industrial economy. Similarly, Japan is
a multi-party parliamentary representative democratic constitutional monarchy while South
Korea is democratic constitutional republic – both of which are high-income advanced
economies.
These are all significant arguments against China’s economic growth, as China lacks
privatization of state enterprises, de-regulation, and rule of law. The underlying authoritarian
political philosophy that eschews democracy, rule of law, and individual rights are in direct
contrast to conventional economic wisdom. Yet despite all the apparent contradictions, China
experienced a GDP averaging about 10 percent per year since reforms began in 1978, lifting
more than 500 million people out of poverty. In contrast, the average GDP growth of all of
South Asia was only 3.87 % and that of Sub-Saharan Africa was a miniscule 0.23 % during a
similar timeframe. Clearly, conventional economic wisdoms has its flaws, especially regarding
developing economies because 1) the absolute importance of economic freedom and rule of
law in economic growth has been overstated, and 2) despite their current democratic status,
the Asian “Tiger”
Economies were all under the rule of a one-party, centralized regime during the period
of initial and explosive economic growth, further emphasizing the importance of a central party.
The role of economic freedom in relation to economic growth and development has
been overstated. Empirical studies have found that although greater economic freedom fosters
economic growth, the level of economic freedom, however, is not related to growth. In the
words of the de Haan and Sturm, “Our findings suggests that more economic freedom will
bring countries more quickly to their steady level of economic growth (if they are below that
level), but that the level of steady state growth is not affected by the level of economic
freedom.” Even the authors themselves were surprised and admitted that, “this finding is not
entirely in line with the view of the proponents of liberalization.” Although the conclusion might
be shocking at first, it makes perfect sense as reflected by China. China’s gradual reforms
starting in 1978 specifically targeted increasing economic freedoms in the agricultural sector
and market liberalizations for foreign investors, which catalyzed its path to a steadily strong
level of economic growth. Thus, once that stage was reached, the level of economic freedom
became insignificant.
Similarly, in his book dedicated to economic growth histories of developing countries
Dani Rodrik concluded, “The onset of economic growth does not require deep and extensive
institutional reform.” In other words, institutional reforms such as rule of law, rather than rule of
man, is unnecessary to initiate economic growth. Furthermore, a study by Allen, Qian, and Qian,
concluded that “there exist informal financing channels and governance mechanisms, such as
those based on reputation and relationships” to support China’s economic growth. Thus,
although China may lack comprehensive formal rule of law mechanisms and channels, there
were extensive informal channels that served as “excellent substitutes for standard corporate
mechanisms,” offering investors strong protection.
Furthermore, the counter-argument that attributes the economic success of the Asian
“Tigers” of Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea, and Japan to their democratic regimes is
misguided because all four nations were under centralized, one-party rule during their initial
stage of economic development. Beginning in the 1960s, the GDP growth of the four nations
averaged 7.5 percent per year for three decades. From 1961 to 1979, South Korea was under the
rule of Park Chung-Hee, who established a strong authoritarian rule of a one-party regime. As
he said himself, “Democracy cannot be realized without an economic revolution.” Park also
formulated specific “Five-Year Plans” for gradual economic reforms that were later emulated
by Chinese leadership. Similarly, Taiwan was under the military rule of Generalissimo Chiang
Kai-shek when he implemented gradual market reforms in agriculture and trade. The post
WWII economic miracle in Japan was spurred by economic policy under the centralized
leadership of the Ministry of International Trade and Industry that heavily regulated
development. Thus, a World Bank report admitted that the non-democratic and authoritarian
political systems during the early years of development were instrumental in the so-called
Asian “economic miracle.” These examples of the economic miracles of the East Asian
countries further support my argument for the critical role of centralized leadership in initial
economic development, analogous to the authoritative parenting style that raises the most
successful children.
Lastly, the author must briefly refute Paul Krugman’s 1994 article, The Myth of Asia’s
Miracle, which generated significant publicity as Krugman boldly asserted that the impressive
growth rates of the East Asian economies were a myth and un-sustainable because the rapid
growth was achieved “in large part through an astonishing mobilizing of resources” and “rapid
growth in inputs.” However, Krugman failed to realize that the astonishing mobilization of
resources is only capable because of the centralized regimes that have the power to authorize
this type of massive resource mobilization. Furthermore, his argument that there was no sign of
increased economic efficiency in terms of total factor productivity is flawed, especially applied
to China, as Bosworth and Collins found TPF growth in China that was higher than the
developing world as a whole. This was a result of gradual reforms that focused on improving
economic efficiency through acquisition of foreign technology and efficient resource allocation.
Thus, Krugman’s argument clearly has its limitations, especially when applied to the case of
China.
* Disclaimer: In order to adhere to the stylistic elements of academic writing, the authors
modified the in-text citation format and the point of view used in the sample research-based
documented essay.

A Strong Conclusion.​ The last component of the paper is the conclusion. Here, you should:
 ● restate the main ideas;
● summarize the main concepts or key arguments of the paper and reinforce it
without repeating or rewording the introduction or body of the paper;
● draw a conclusion based on the information; and
● include suggested courses of action and possible solutions or
recommendations.

Sample: Conclusion of a Research-based Documented Essay titled: Defying Convention:

An Explanation of China’s Explosive Economic Growth - A Research-based Documented
Essay written by David A. Rezvani, from the Dartmouth’s Institute for Writing and
Rhetoric - First Year Writing Portfolios

Conclusion
This documented essay aimed to answer the essential question: What explains China’s
remarkable economic growth during the reform era? To begin, the two chief contending
schools of thought designated as Decentralization: Federalism, Chinese Style and Foreign
Investment were refuted and shown to be inappropriate and insufficient when applied to
analysis of China’s extraordinary economic growth. The argument of the decentralization
school is flawed because both the effect of decentralization on economic growth and the
extent of decentralization in China have been overstated and over-exaggerated. The fatal
weakness of the foreign investment school of thought was exposed by examining the
fundamental dependency of foreign investment upon the quality of human capital in terms of
stimulating economic growth. In reality, the principle driver behind China’s remarkable
economic growth was the gradual reform process under the leadership of a strong and
pragmatic central party. Effective central leadership created a developmental state set to drive
economic growth by implementing gradual reforms through experimentation rather than
neo-liberal economic shock therapies. The gradual market-oriented reforms under pragmatic
central leadership are the sparks that ignited China’s explosive economic boom, in defiance of
all conventions.
* Disclaimer: In order to adhere to the stylistic elements of academic writing, the authors
modified the in-text citation format and the point of view used in the sample research-based
documented essay.