Important things to remember for tomorrow: Plant reproduction

Features of self pollination 1. Flowers are bisexual with the anthers and stigmas maturing at the same time 2. The stigma is situated directly below the anthers 3. Some flowers never open (cleistogamous flowers) Pros and cons of self-pollination Only one parent plant is required Off springs inherits beneficial genes from parent plant Does not depend on external factors (insect or wind) Higher probability (anther closer to stigma) Less pollen and energy is wasted Off springs genes are similar less varieties and less adapted to changes Off springs may become weaker, smaller and less resistant to diseases Features of cross-pollination 1. Flowers are of same gender, if bisexual: stigma and anther positioned far apart, stigma above anthers 2. Anthers and stigma maturing at different times 3. Having structural features (Stigma and Anthers positioned such that pollen grains are deposited from insect to stigma and will drop on insect) 4. Having substances which prevents pollen penetration or growth of pollen tube of the same plant Pros and cons of self pollination Off spring may inherit beneficial qualities from both parents More varieties, greater genetic variation, increasing chance of surviving change in environment thus less likely to destroy all varieties of same species. More viable seeds, can last longer before germination Two parents plants required Dependent on external factors (wind or insect) Lower probability (one plant to another) More pollen and energy wasted

Insect pollination Flowers large, brightly colored and scented to attract insects Nectar present to attract insects Stigma small, contact and does not protrude out Sticky so that pollen grains are not easily displaced Stamens are not pendulous and does not protrude out Nectar guides are present to guide insects towards nectar Pollen grains are heavy, large and sticky with rough surfaces to cling on insects bodies The eye

Wind pollination Flower small, dull and not scented Nectar absent Stigma large and feathery, protruding out to provide a large surface area to trap pollen Long pendulous filaments and protruding anthers that sway easily so that pollen grains are shaken out of anthers Nectar guides absent Pollen more abundant due to high wasted Pollen dry, smooth and light to be easily blown about by the wind

High light intensity falls on fovea of the retina Low light intensity falls on fovea of the retina A nerve impulse is initiated at the photoreceptors and transmitted along the sensory neuron through the optic nerve towards the brain The brain processes the nerve impulse and initiates another nerve impulse which is transmitted along the motor neuron back to the eye At the receptors which is the iris, the nerve impulse causes The circular muscles to contract The circular muscles to relax The radical muscles to relax The radical muscles to contract The pupil constricts The pupil dilates To let less light into the eye To let more light into the eye 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Sudden blindness Rods are sensitive to low light intensity because they contain visual purple In high light intensity settings, the visual purple is bleached Nerve impulses cannot be sent to the brain from rods, so the person cannot see Visual purple must be reformed so the person can see It takes awhile for it to form again

Light rays from distal object is parallel Light rays from near object is divergent The ciliary muscles relax The ciliary muscles contract Pulling on the suspensory ligaments Relaxing the pull on the suspensory ligaments Suspensory ligaments taut Suspensory ligaments slackens Pulling on the edge of the lens Relaxing pull on the edge of the lens The lens becomes thinner and more convex The lens becomes thicker and less convex Increasing the focal length Decreasing the focal length Light rays from object are sharply focused on fovea of the retina Photoreceptors are stimulated Nerve impulses produced are transmitted by the optic nerve to the brain The brain interprets the impulses and the person sees the object The nervous system

Nerve fibers that transmit impulses towards the cell body are called dendrons The axon is the long fibre that transmit impulses away from the cell body The terminal branches of both axons and dendrons are called dendrites The nerve fibers are enclosed by the myelin sheath A thin membrane, the neurilemma, in turn, surrounds this. Nerve impulse is forced to jump from node to node along the length of the axon, which greatly increases the speed of conduction Impulses transmitted from the axon to Dendron across a minute space are called the synapse. It is done through chemical means through the release of neurotransmitters.

Grey matter Consists mainly of the cell bodies of the neurons. It forms the outer layers of the brain and the central parts of the spinal cord. White matter consists mainly of the nerve fibers. It forms the central part of the brain and the outer layers of the spinal cord. The mixed spinal nerve that is made up of a sensory neuron and a motor neuron. If it is injured, Nerve impulses cannot be transmitted along the sensory neuron towards the brain. Thus, the person cannot feel. Nerve impulses cannot be transmitted along the motor neuron towards the effectors. Thus, the person cannot move. The dorsal root is made up of sensory neurons. If it is injured, Nerve impulses cannot be transmitted along the sensory neuron towards the brain. Thus, the person cannot feel. But he can move, as the motor neuron is not affected. The ventral root is made up of motor neurons. If is injured, He can still feel as nerve impulses can still be transmitted along the sensory neuron to the brain. Nerve impulses cannot be transmitted along the motor neuron towards the effector. Thus, the person cannot move. Light rays from the bottle falls onto the fovea of the retina. Photoreceptors are stimulated Nerve impulses are initiated at the photoreceptors And transmitted along the sensory neuron in the optic nerve towards the brain. The brain interprets the nerve impulse And initiates another nerve impulse which is then transmitted along the motor neuron back to the effectors The muscles contact and Heat stimulates the receptors in the skin. Never impulses are initiated and transmitted along the sensory neuron to the spinal cord. Here, impulses are transmitted along a synapse to the relay neuron and then across the synapse to the motor neuron. Nerve impulses leave the spinal cord along the motor neuron to the effector The muscle contract and

The endocrine system Are produced by endocrine glands; Are transported by the blood to target organs; Alter the activity of one or more target organs; Destroyed by the liver; Excreted by the kidneys. The pituitary gland plays an important role as a controller. It secretes a number of hormones, which controls the functions of several other endocrine glands. Master gland. Also secretes anti-diuretic hormone (ADH). Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas secretes insulin and glucagon Decreased blood glucose concentration by: Increasing the permeability of cell membranes to glucose. Increasing the rate of glucose uptake by cells. Stimulates the liver and muscle cells to convert glucose to glycogen for storage. Increasing oxidation of glucose during tissue respiration. Glucose cannot be stored or utilized by tissue cells. Blood glucose concentration rises. Some glucose is subsequently lost in urine. This gives rise to a disease called diabetes mellitus. Muscle cells have no reserves of glycogen; the body grows weak and continuously loses weight. The body oxidizes fats instead of glucose to produce energy. Results in the production of poisonous substances called ketones that are excreted in urine (ketonuria). Death may occur. Abnormal decrease in blood glucose concentration. Low blood glucose concentration results in a condition called shock. Coma and death may occur. Increases blood glucose levels by speeding up the breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver and muscles for respiration Increases metabolic rate, more energy in the form of ATP is released in tissue respiration Increases the rate of heartbeat and causes a rise in blood pressure so that oxygen and glucose are carried faster to the muscles Increases the rate and depth of ventilation Constricts arterioles in skin, causing paleness, thus channeling more blood to the muscles Increases the rate of blood coagulation Causes pupils to dilate to enhance vision Contracts hair muscles, producing goose bumps