Stream Flow
• A stream is a flow channel which drains the runoff (+base flow)
from a drainage basin.
• The water flowing in streams is called stream flow.
• The stage is the height of the water surface above an arbitrary
datum.
• The water that makes up our streams and rivers is derived from
two sources: direct runoff and base flow.
• Direct runoff is a consequence of precipitation.
• Base flow is the dry water flow that results from the seepage
of groundwater out of stream banks.
• The amount of water that reaches a stream is a function of the
abstraction (evaporation, infiltration, and interception) and the
catchment area that feeds the stream.
Stream Gauging
• The measurement of discharge and stage in a stream is referred
to as stream gauging.
• The point along the stream where the measurements are made is
called the gauging site or gauging station.
• An essential feature of a gauging station to obtain a good stage-
discharge relation is the ‘control’.
• The control is a cross-station or a reach of a stream, which
controls the relationship between the stage and the discharge.
• The stage gauge is therefore, installed within the area of
influence of the control.
• In the control section, velocity at x-section are measured as well
as a depth profile in the stream.
Measurement of Streamflow
Methods of streamflow measuring may be grouped into
• Controlled sections - weirs, flumes, channel sections
• Area Velocity methods
• Slope-Area methods
• Stage – discharge relationships
• Chemical methods
Control Structures
Various types of control structures are used for measurement
of streamflow for example flumes, weirs etc.
Limitations of control structures
• small streams – except broad crested weirs may be
used at dams
• require maintenance and construction
• causes sedimentation - may require regular removal
Measurement of Stream Velocity
• Float Method
• Control Sections and control structures
• Current Meters
• Modern Techniques
Measuring Flow Velocity
Float
time float over a known distance;
convert surface velocity to average velocity;
simple but very approximate.
Current Meter
simple, robust and precise (± 5 %);
two types: cup type, and propeller type;
wading, or use from a bridge, boat, cable-way.
Modern Techniques
integrating-float technique
electromagnetic, ultrasonic, and laser sensing,
Current Meters
• Current meters are the most commonly used instruments for
measurement of flow velocities of stream water.
• The instrument consists of a rotating element which when hit
by the stream current revolves with an angular velocity
proportional to the stream velocity.
• The formula for calculating the velocity by a current meter is
V = a Ns + b
Where
V = stream velocity (m/s)
Ns = number of revolution per second of the current meter
a, b = are constant for meter
Measurement of Stream Stage
Stream stage is measured either by a non-recording or
recording gauge. Gauges are installed either directly in
streams or inside a stilling wells.
• Manually Operated Gauges
Staff Gauge
Wire Gauge
• Automatic Stage Recorders
Float Operated Recorders
Pressure Transducers
Measuring Stream Stage
Staff Gauge
permanent graduated gauge (± 3 mm);
read manually;
can miss important levels.
Autographic Recorders
float operated chart recorder;
site in a stilling well;
provide continuous record of stage.
Pressure Transducers
stage obtained from water pressure sensor
automatic and digital
widely used for real-time applications
Velocity Area method
Measure flow velocities at a number of verticals across a surveyed
section of the stream. Compute discharge using:
Q va n
i 1 i i
where:
Q = total discharge
vi = mean velocity for sub area i
ai = cross sectional area of sub-area i
Procedure
divide width into about 20 sub-sections
at each of the sub-division points measure water depth and
current meter to determine mean flow velocity.
one-point method - measure at 0.6 depth
two-point method - measure at 0.2 and 0.8 depths and average.
calculate the discharge using the above formula.
Relating Point Velocity to Cross-Sectional Velocity
Mean velocity is closely approximated by:
1
V ( v0.2d v0.8d )
2
A. Calculating the discharge: mean section method
Averages of mean velocities in the vertical and depths at the boundaries of
a section sub-division are multiplied by the width of the sub-division.
vi 1 vi di 1 di
n
Q qi va bi bi 1
i 1 2 2
bi = distance of measuring point i from bank datum
n = number of sub-areas
B. Calculating the discharge: mid-section method
Mean velocity and depth measured at a sub-division point are multiplied by the
sub-area width measured between the mid-points of neighbouring sub-areas.
Q q i va vi d i
n
bi1 bi1
i 1 2
n = number of measured verticals and sub-areas
Stage - Discharge Relationship
Enables discharge to be computed from observed stage readings.
Rating Curve (graphical plot of stage v discharge)
Rating Table (tabular form)
Rating Equation (Formula)
The rating equation is of the form:
Q = a Hb
Chemical Methods
• Several chemical methods have been developed to measure stream velocity.
• They are normally used in cases where it is impractical to use current meters.
Such is the case for shallow streams, very large rivers, or tidal flow.
• These methods can be grouped into (1) tracer and (2) dilution methods.
1. Tracer Method
A tracer is a substance that is not normally present in the stream and that
is not likely to be lost by chemical reaction with other substances.
Salt, fluorescein and radioactive materials are commonly used as tracers.
Small quantities of the tracer are injected into the stream at a source, and
the time of travel to one or more downstream points is monitored.
2. Dilution method
In the dilution method, a concentrated solution of a substance is
introduced at a constant rate at a source point. Further downstream, after
complete mixing has taken place, the flow is sampled to determine the
equilibrium concentration of the mixture. A mass balance of flow and
substance leads to the following equation:
Q = (Cs /Ce - 1) Qs
Where
Q = stream discharge
Cs = concentration of the substance solution at the source
Ce = equilibrium concentration of mixture at the sampling point
Qs = rate of inflow of substance solution at the source
