Chapter 4a

SURFACE RUN-OFF
Cloud

Cloud Cloud

Transpiration

Evaporation Wind
Evaporation
from Land
Infiltration Run-off from
Lake/river Evaporation
Run-off from Ocean

Groundwater
Flow
impermeable layer

Hydrologic Cycle
Learning Objectives

Define surface run-off, its formation,

characteristics, and all other related
flows,
Illustrate the various techniques of
streamflow measurements,
Educate students on the effects and
influences of different types of catchment
area to the surface run off.
Learning Outcomes

Give the definition of various types of flows

that contribute to the formation streamflow and
surface water runoff,
Analyse streamflow in a watershed using
stream gauging and estimation of runoff.
Describe the different effects of surface runoff
due to the different types of vegetation and
conditions exist on the catchment area.
Definition

Surface runoff is a term used to

describe the flow of water, from rain,
snowmelt, or other sources, over the
land surface, and is a major component
of the water cycle
Paths of runoff
 Meteorological factors
affecting runoff
Type of precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, etc.)
Rainfall intensity
Rainfall amount
Rainfall duration
Distribution of rainfall over the drainage basin
Direction of storm movement
Precipitation that occurred earlier and resulting soil
moisture
Other meteorological and climatic conditions that
affect evapotranspiration, such as temperature, wind,
relative humidity, and season
Physical characteristics
affecting runoff
Land use
Vegetation
Soil type
Drainage area
Basin shape
Elevation
Topography, especially the slope of the land
Drainage network patterns
Type of Drainage Basin
MEASUREMENT OF STAGE

The stage of a river is defined as its

water-surface elevation measured above
a datum. This datum can be the mean-
sea level (MSL) or any arbitrary datum
connected independently to the MSL.
MEASUREMENT OF STAGE

Manual gauges
Staff Gauge
Wire Gauge
Automatic Stage Recorders
Float-Gauge Recorder
Bubble Gauge Recorder
Staff Gauge
Wire Gauge
Float-Gauge Recorder
Bubble Gauge Recorder
Stage Data

a plot of stage against time

Purpose: determination of stream
discharge, flood warning and flood-
protection works
Peak flood design peak river
stages design of hydraulic
structures, such as bridges, weirs, etc.
Stage Data
MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY

1.Current meter
Vertical-axis meters, and
Horizontal-axis meters.

2.Float type
Vertical-axis meters
Horizontal-axis meters
MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY

Current Meters
v = a Ns+b (5.1)
where v = stream velocity at the
instrument location in m/s,
Ns = revolutions per second of the meter,
and
a, b = constants of the meter.
Float
Velocity Measurement by
Floats

S
vs
t

S = distance traveled in time t.

Determination of Stream-flow

Direct determination Methods or Stream

Gauging:
(a) Area-velocity methods,
(b) Velocity measurement by floats,
(c) Tracer-dilution techniques,
(d) Electromagnetic method, and
(e) Ultrasonic method.
 Indirect determination of stream flow:
(a) Hydraulic structures, such as
weirs, flumes, orifices and gated
structures, and
(b) Slope-area method.
DIRECT METHODS

Area-velocity methods
i) the mid-section method, and
ii) the mean-section method.
 Mid-section method

N 1
Q Q1
i 1
Wi Wi 1 for i=2 to (N-2)
Q1 = yi vi (Middle segments)
2 2
 Mid-section method

For the first and last sections, the segments are taken to have triangular areas
and area calculated as

A1 W1 y1

2
W2
W
1 2 First segment
W1
2W1
2
WN 1
W
N Last segment
2
WN 1
2WN
 Mean-section method

1.Average velocity and depth

2. Maintain W, (width)
 Dilution Method

chemical method depends upon the continuity

principle applied to a tracer which is allowed to
mix completely with the flow
Tracer:
1. Chemicals (common salt and sodium
dichromate are typical);
2. Fluorescent dyes (Rhodamine-WT and Sulpho-
Rhodamine B Extra are typical);

3. Radioactive materials (such as Bromine-82,

Sodium-24 and Iodine-132).
 C1 C2
Q q
C2 C0
c0 = background conc. already present
c1 = the known conc. of tracer added at a
constant rate q
c2 = sustained final conc. of the chemical in the
well mixed flow

Example
Indirect determination of stream
flow
These methods make use of the
relationship between the flow discharge
and the water surface slope and depth at
specified locations

- produce a unique control section in the

flow
Slope-Area Method

Difficult to make measurements eg. large

flood events.
Use Manning equation

Need extra data = R (hydraulic radius), S

(slope), n (Manning coefficient)
STAGE-DISCHARGE RATING
CURVES
 Regular recording of discharges over a
period of time is essential for correct
estimation of water resources of river
basins and subsequent planning and
utilization.
Daily discharge observations over a long
period are sometimes not feasible.
The estimation of the discharge - using
proper stage discharge relation.
STAGE-DISCHARGE RATING
CURVES

End of Chapter 4