🪦 EXAM 1

EXAM 1:

LOOK @ THE OBJECTIVE BELOW!

Human Body: Orientation
Human Body: Orientation Objectives

1. List the hierarchy of structural organization of anatomy

1) Chemical Level - Atoms and Molecules

2) Cellular Level - Cells

3) Tissue - Similar types of cells

4) Organ - Structure made of tissue

5) Organ System - Unified group of organs (Specific function)

a) Skeletal
b) Muscular
c) Digestive
d) Respiratory
e) Nervous
f) Circulatory

6) Organismal - Whole person

2. Describe the anatomical position

Facing forward
Palms supinated
Feet forward

3. Know the difference between anatomical planes

1) Coronal - think crown (Anterior/Posterior)

 2) Sagittal - think side to side (Lateral/Medial)

3) Transverse - Top and bottom (Superior/Inferior)

4. Be able to use regional and directional terms to explain precise location

of body structure

Distal/Proximal
Lateral/Medial
Superior/Inferior
Superficial/Deep

Bilateral (paired)
Ipsilateral
Internal/External
Integumentary System
Integumentary System

1. Be able to describe the structure of skin and its five functions

The skin is divided into two layers: Epidermis and Dermis
The 5 functions:
● Protection - cushions organs and protects from bumps, chemicals, water
loss, and UV radiation
● Body Temp. Regulation - capillary network and sweat glands regulate heat
loss
● Excretions - urea, salt, and water lost through sweat
● Production of Vitamin D - epidermal cells use UV radiation to synthesize
vitamin D
● Sensory Receptors - contains sense organs associated with nerve
endings

2. Know the cell types that comprise the epidermis

1) Keratinocytes
2) Melanocytes
3) Tactile Epithelial Cell
4) Dendritic Cell

3. Briefly describe the five epidermal layers

Come Lets Get Sun Burnt
1) Stratum Corneum - (horny layer)
2) Stratum Lucideum - (Only if thick skin aka hands)
3) Stratum Granulosum - (layer before keratinocytes begin to die)
4) Stratum Spinosum - (spiny layer)
5) Stratum Basale - (deepest layer)

4. Explain the characteristics of the papillary and reticular dermis

Papillary - contains Dermal Papillae (ebs and flow), which inc. the surface area for the
exchange of nutrients
Recticular Dermis - 80% of thickness, cleavage lines -> separation of collagen fibers

5. Know the gross anatomy of skin appendages: nail, hair, hair follicle

Nails - scale-like modification (HARD KERATIN)

Hair - Root: Embedded in skin | Shaft: Projects above skin’s surface
Hair Follicle - Epidermis and Dermis

6. Explain the function of a sebaceous gland and know where they are
usually found

Secrete Sebum (oil)

Simple Alveolar Glands
- Holocrine secretion

Whole body but palms ands soles

7. Know the two types of sweat (sudoriferous) glands

Eccrine Gland - most numerous

Apocrine Gland - musk

8. Know the derivatives of the epidermis, dermis, hypodermis, and

melanocytes

Hypodermis (Superficial Fascia)

Melanocyte - MELANIN
Muscle Mechanics
Muscle Mechanics

1. Know the function and properties of muscle tissue

Properties:
1) Elastic
2) Extensibility
3) Contractibility
4) Exciteability

Functions:
1) Open and Close body passages
2) Heat
3) Movement
4) Stability/Posture

2. List the three types of muscle tissue and where they can be found
(generally)

Skeletal: All skeletal muscles - striated - voluntary

Smooth: Organs (Ex: Stomach) - not striated (needs to expand) - involuntary

Cardiac: Heart - Striated - Involuntary

3. Know the other types of tissue contained in skeletal muscle

Type I | Slow Oxidative Type IIa | Fast Oxidative Type IIx/b | Fast Glycolytic
 - Red color (lots of - High myoglobin/ rich - White in color (low
myoglobin) supply of capillaries in myoglobin )

- Many capillaries/ - Contract quickly and

mitochondria - Somewhat fatigue fatigue easily
resistant
- Contract slowly and - Large in diameter
resistant to fatigue - More powerful than (twice the diameter
slow oxidative fibers of type I)
- Small in diameter
- Aerobic - Depend on
- Aerobic anaerobic pathways

- Contain more
myofilaments and
generate more
power

4. Be able to explain microscopic and gross anatomy of skeletal muscle.

Microscopic Anatomy
- Muscle Fibers: Long and cylindrical
- Diameter: 10 mcm - 100 mcm
- Length: Several to dozens of centimeters
- Formed by embryonic cells
- Multinucleate (Peripherally located)

Gross Anatomy
Bone -> Tendon -> Epamesium -> Fascicle (Wrapped by Fascicle) -> Endomysium
(between each muscle fiber) -> Sarcolemma -> muscle fibrils -> Sarcomere
 5. Be able to label and define the functional contractile unit of skeletal
muscle
Z disc to z disc

6. Know the roles of a neuromuscular junction, axon terminal, synaptic

cleft, sarcoplasmic reticulum and t-tubules in skeletal muscle
contraction. Also be able to define a motor unit

Neuromuscular Junction - area where the Synaptic Cleft and Terminal Bouton meet

Motor Unit - The motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates.
 7. Describe how skeletal myofibers are categorized and know differences
between each type
LOOK AT #3
8. Give a brief description of how the three muscle types can be
differentiated
LOOK AT #3

9. Define the seven different types of fascicle arrangements

1) Circular
2) Fusiform
3) Parallel
4) Convergent
5) Unipennate
6) Bipennate
7) Multipennate

10. Describe the three types of lever systems

 11. Explain the significance of muscle compartments of the limbs

Synergists, Agonists, Antagonists (Opposes Agonist)

Musculoskeleton I
Musculoskeletal I

1. List the functions of bone?

a) Support - Framework
b) Movement - Bones as levers
c) Protection - protects underlying organs
d) Mineral Storage - Reservoir for minerals
e) Blood Cell Formation - Contains red marrow
f) Energy Metabolism - Osteoblasts secrete osteocalcin

2. Describe structural features and gross anatomy of a bone?

a) Long Bones - longer than wide; shaft plus ends (Humerus)

b) Short Bones - roughly cube-shaped (Talus: foot bone)
c) Flat Bones - thin and flattened, usually curved (Sternum)
d) Irregular Bones - looks like none of the others (vertebra)

Gross Anatomy:

1) Compact Bone - Dense outer layer of bone

a) Contains passageways for blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves ( MORE
COMPLEX)

2) Spongy Bone - An Internal network of Trabeculae that spreads force over a larger
surface area
a) Trabeculae contains layers of lamellae and OSTEOCYTES ( keep bone matrix
healthy)
b) Trabeculae - Beams that dampen force
Structure of Long Bone/BONE GROWTH:

Diaphysis - “shaft” of a bone; WHAT DOES THE GROWING

Epiphyses - Ends of the bone; WHAT PREMITS THE GROWING
- Well vascularized w/ blood vessels
- Medullary Cavity - Hollow cavity filled with yellow marrow
- Membranes - perforating collagen fiber bundles (SHARPEY’S FIBERS), Periosteum,
Endosteum

3. Define ossification and describe the process of endochondral ossification?

 - Ossification (osteogenesis) - Formation of bone tissue, think of osteoporosis; over-
hardening of bones
Endochondral Ossification:
- Begins second month of embryonic development
- Continues till early adulthood
- Bones are modeled in HYALINE CARTILAGE

ORDER:
1. In EPIPHYSEAL PLATES (Growth Plates) cartilage cells form tall stacks (Chondroblasts
at the top of stacks divide quickly)
- Pushes epiphysis away from diaphysis
- Lengthens entire long bone

2. Older chondrocytes signal surrounding matrix to calcify

3. Older chondrocytes then die and disintegrate

a. Leaves long trabeculae on diaphysis side
 b. Osteoblasts cover trabeculae with bone tissue
c. Eaten away from their tips by osteoclasts

4. Know which hormones are involved in regulation of bone growth ?

Growth Hormone: produced by pituitary gland, stimulates epiphyseal plates
Thyroid hormone:keeps skeleton in proper proportions
Sex hormones: (estrogen/testosterone) promote bone growth and later closes epiphyseal
plates
5. Describe the functions of the three types of cartilage?
Hyaline
● Chondrocytes (Cartilage Cells) are spherical
● Flexibility and resistance
● Most abundant cartilage
○ Located in: Modeling of development, articular surfaces of long bones, costal
cartilage on ventral ends of ribs, rings of trachea
Elastic Cartilage
● Contains many elastic fibers
● Able to tolerate repeated bending
○ Located in: Epiglottis and cartilage of the external ear
Fibrocartilage
● Resists strong compression and tension
● Intermediate between hyaline and elastic
○ Located in: pubic symphysis, menisci of knee, and annulus fibrosus
6. Be able to label cranial bones, facial bones, and sutures of the skull?
Know:
- Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Ethmoid, Sphenoid, Temporal, Mandible, Maxilla
Bones
- Coronal, Sagittal, Lambdoid, Squamous Sutures

7. Know muscles involved with mastication and explain their actions?

Closure:
● Masseter m
● Temporalis m
Side to side:
● Medial pterygoid m
● Lateral pterygoid m
 8. Describe movement and functions of the major regions of the vertebral column.
● 7 cervical (C1- C7)
● 12 thoracic (T1- T12)
● 5 lumbar (L1 - L5)
● Sacrum
● Coccyx
Function
● Transmits weight to lower limbs and trunk
● Protects spinal cord

9. Know the basic differences in structure and function of C1 and C2 vertebrae?

Atlas Axis
● Supports skull ● Dens: pivot for rotation of skull
● Flexion and extension of neck ● Rotating head side to side
● Nodding yes ● Shaking NO

10. Be able to label the six major landmarks of a typical vertebra?

Body
Vertebral arch
Vertebral foramen
Spinous process
Transverse process
Superior and inferior articular processes

11. Know the basic characteristics of cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae?
Cervical: C1-C7
● Atlas vertebrae followed by axis vertebrae
● Wider body laterally
● Short spinous process
Thoracic vertebrae:
Lumbar

12. Explain structure of intervertebral discs?

Made of:
● Nucleus Pulposus: gelatinous inner sphere that absorbs compressive stress
● Anulus Fibrosus:
○ Outer rings made of ligament
○ Inner rings made of fibrocartilage
○ Contains the nucleus pulposus

13. Identify the four major landmarks of sacrum?

Sacral Promontory
Ala
Anterior sacral foramina
Posterior sacral foramina
 14. List the three components of a thoracic cage?
Thoracic vertebrae
Ribs
Sternum and costal cartilage

15. Be able to identify the structures and landmarks of sternum

Know:
● Manubrium
● Body
● Xiphiod
● Jugular notch
● Sternal angle
● Xiphisternal point

16. Know the difference between true, false, and floating ribs?
True: superior 7 pairs of ribs attached directly to sternum with costal cartilage
False: inferior five pairs of ribs attaches w costal cartilage to superior ribs
Floats ribs: 11-12 not attached to sternum

17. List three muscles involved with unlabored respiration?

Diaphragm: increases volume of thoracic cavity
External intercostal muscles: lift rib cage
Internal intercostal muscles: aid expiration

18. List muscles of the abdominal wall and know their general function.
IT MOVES THE SPINE

Serratus anterior
Transversus abdominus
Internal oblique
External oblique
Rectus abdominus

Function:
● support / protect abdominal vertebra
● Movement of vertebral column
● Contract when we poop or make babies
or smth like that
Musculoskeleton II
Musculoskeletal II

1. Be able to identify the joints of the pectoral girdle, elbow, forearm, wrist,
and hand, as well as their associated movements

Joints Associated Movements

Pectoral Girdle ~ Acromioclavicular Joint Abduction/Adduction
~ Sternoclavicular Joint Flexion/Extension
~ Glenohumeral Joint
Elbow ~ Hinge Joint Uniaxial movement
~flexion/extension
Forearm ~ Pivot Joint (Radialulnar Joint) ~ Supination/Pronation
Wrist ~ Radiocarple (Plane) Joint ~ Flexion, extension, adduction,
~ Intercarple (Condyle)Joint abduction, circumduction
~ gliding
Hand ~ Saddle joint Biaxial movement, Adduction,
~ Condylar Joint abduction, flexion, and
~ Plane Joint extension

Nonaxial Movement, gliding

2. Be able to label muscles, bones, ligaments, and bony landmarks

emphasized in lecture
Scapula - Superior border, Lateral border, Medial border, Inferior angle, Superior angle,
Glenoid cavity
Pectoral Girdle - Acromion, Coracohumeral ligament, Coracoid process, Glenohumeral
ligaments, Bursa, Glenoid cavity, Glenoid cavity, Acromioclavicular Joint,
Stemoclavicular Joint, and Glenohumeral Joint.
Shoulder Muscle - Pectoralis Major, Deltoid, and Latissimus Dorsi
Rotator Cuff Muscles - Supraspinatus, Infraspinatus, Teres minor, and Subscapularis
Humerus - Deltoid Tuberosity, Medial Epicondyle, Lateral Epicondyle, and Head of
Humerus
Elbow - Humerus, Ulna, Radius, Radial collateral ligament, Annular ligament, ???
Upper Arm Muscles - Triceps brachii, Bicaps brachii, Brachialis, Brachioradialis
Forearm - Radius, Ulna, Interosseous membrane, Pronator Teres, Flexor Retinaculum,
Supinator
Ulna - Olecranon, Radial notch, Trochlear notch, Coronoid process, Ulnar styloid
process
Radius - Capitulum, Head, Neck, Radial tuberosity, Radial styloid process

Wrist - Radialcarpal joint, Intercarpal Joint, wrist joint, Radial collateral, Ulnar collateral
joint
Hand - Carpals, Metacarpals, Phalanges, Thenar muscles, Hypothenar muscles

3. List the four muscles that are considered “rotator cuff” muscles
Supraspinatus, Infraspinatus, Teres Minor, - Anterior Subscapularis - Posterior
4. Know the compartments of the upper limb, which muscles are in each
compartment, and each compartment’s action

Anterior Flexor Compartment Posterior Extensor Compartment

Muscles - Pronator teres Supinator

- Flexor Retinaculum

Action Flexion of the wrist and fingers Extension of the wrist and fingers
Musculoskeleton III
Musculoskeletal III

1. Know the functions of the pelvic girdle and what bones it is comprised
of
Pelvic Girdle Functions:
- Attaches lower limbs to the spine
- Supports visceral organs
- Attaches to the axial skeleton by strong ligaments
Pelvis Girdle Bones:
- Illium
- Ishium
- Pubis
Acetabulum - a deep hemispherical socket on the lateral pelvic surface; receives the
ball-shaped head of the femur at the hip joint

Note: Bones are fused to regions of the coxal bones, but retain separate names

2. Be able to label muscles, bones, ligaments, and bony landmarks

emphasized in lecture

3. Describe basic differences in the female and male pelvis

Female Pelvis - the pelvis is wide and shallow
Male Pelvis - the pelvis is narrow and deeper
 4. Explain the three classes of joints, associated types, and their structural
characteristics

Classes Fibrous Cartilaginous Synovial

Structural Adjoining bones united by Adjoining bones united by Adjoining bones separated
Characteristics collagenic fibers cartilage by a joint cavity, covered by
articular cartilage, and
enclosed within another
capsule lined with synovial
membrane
Associated ~ Suture (short fibers) ~ Synchondrosis (hyaline ~ Plane
Types ~ Syndemosis (longer cartilage) ~ Hinge
fibers) ~ Symphysis ~ Pivot
~ Gomphosis (periodontal (fibrocartilage) ~ Condylar
ligament) ~ Saddle
~ Ball-and-Socket

5. Know what movements are possible at synovial joints of the lower

extremity
Flexion + Extension
Lateral rotation + Medial rotation
Inversion + Eversion
Dorsiflexion + Planter Flexion

6. Know the compartments of the lower limb, which muscles are in each
compartment, and each compartment’s action
Compartment Muscles Action
Anterior Thigh compartment Quadriceps ~ Flexes the hip
- Rectus Femoris ~ Extends the knee
- Vastus Intermedius
- Vastus Lateralis
- Vastus Medialis
Medial Thigh Compartment Adductors ~ Adducts
Posterior Thigh Compartment Hanstrings ~ Flexes the knee
- Bicep Femoris ~ Extends the hip
- Semitendinosus
- Semimembranosus

Anterior Leg Compartment 1) Tibialis Anterior 1) Inverts and dorsiflexes the

2) Extensor Digitorum ankle
Longus 2) Extends toes and
3) Extensor Hallucis Longus dorsiflexes ankle
3) Extends big toe and
dorsiflexes ankle
Lateral Leg Compartment ~ Fibularis Longus ~ Eversion of the foot
~ Fibularis Brevis ~ Abduction of the little toe (brevis)
Posterior Leg Compartment ~ Gastromenemius ~ Plantar flexion of the foot
~ Soleus
😃 EXAM 2
Heart
1. Describe the flow of blood through the heart and lungs, including valves

2. Explain the heart’s location and orientation in the thorax

3. Know the coverings and layers of the heart, from superficial to deep

4. List the chambers, internal divisions, and external markings discussed

in lecture

5. Be able to identify the internal structures that are characteristic of the

four chambers

6. Know basic differences between the structure/function of the four

valves

7. Explain the two heart sounds and where each valve sound can be heard

8. Define systole and diastole

9. Describe how cardiac muscle cells are connected

10. List the five main components of the heart’s conduction system

11. Briefly explain parasympathetic and sympathetic innervation of the

heart

12. Know the basic organization of the coronary arteries and cardiac veins
discussed in lecture
Respiratory
1. Trace the path of oxygen as it enters the body until gas exchange
occurs

2. Describe the function of the two zones of the respiratory system

3. Explain the basic properties of respiratory mucosa

4. Know the associated structures and functions of the three components

of the pharynx

5. List the structures that comprise the larynx

6. Know functions and innervation of larynx. Also explain its

superior/inferior borders

7. Describe the difference between the two vocal ligaments

8. Explain the significance of the two listed structures of the trachea

9. Describe the organization of bronchi and associated changes in tissue

composition

10. Understand the structure and function of alveoli

11. Know the structure of the respiratory membrane

12. Describe gross anatomy and major landmarks of the lung discussed in
lecture

13. Explain the structure and function of the pleurae

14. Know the mechanism of ventilation and associated muscles

15. Understand structures involved with neural control of ventilation

16. Have a basic understanding of the three lower respiratory disorders