HUMAN BODY

SYSTEMS:
🧘🧑‍🦯🧑‍🦼🧑‍🦽🧎🧍🚶🏃🤸🏋️⛹️🤾🚴
a) digestive system
b) integumentary system
c) nervous system
d) circulatory (cardiovascular) system
- lymphatic system
- immune system
e) skeletal system
f) muscular system
g) respiratory system
h) excretory system
i) reproductive system
j) endocrine system (hormonálna sústava)
k) sensory system

ANATOMY/PHYSIOLOGY
- anatomy - studies structure of the body
- physiology - studies functions of the body

inferior - superior
medial - lateral
anterior - posterior
ventral - dorsal
proximal - distal
(near) (far)
cephalic - caudal
(hlavový) (chvostovy)

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TISSUES
main types:
- epithelial
- connective
- muscle
- nervous

EPITHELIAL TISSUE
- surface of organs cavities
- densely packed cells
- on one end exposed to the environment, on the other bounded to the underlying
tissue
- basement membrane - between epithelial and the underlying connective tissue
- mainly serves for protection

CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- connects and supports
- made up of cells which provide fibers
- fibers
- collagenous - thick, provide strength and flexibility, protein collagen
- reticular - also contain collagen but they’re much thinner, network of fibers
- elastic - protein elastin gives ability to get to original state after being
stretched
- fibrous (vazivo)
- loose connective tissue
- supports epithelial and organs
- adipose tissue
- adipocytes compose adipose tissue and store energy as fat
- found beneath the skin, basically body fat
- dense connective tissue
- contains many collagen fibers that are packed together
- ligaments and tendons (vazy a slachy)
- specialized
- cartilage - flexible - nose, ear, end of long bones and ribs
- bones - store calcium salts, blood cells production in bone marrone
- blood - plasma, white and red blood cells, platelets
- lymph

MUSCULAR TISSUE
- muscle fibers
- cells that make up muscles
- contain actin and myosin
- contractile
- skeletal muscles(striated)
- these muscles are attached to bones
- can be voluntarily controlled

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 - faster contraction
- smooth muscles
- make up internal organs (uterus, urinary, bladder, blood vessels, pupils)
- cannot be voluntary controlled
- slower contractions but can be longer
- cardiac muscle
- only in the wall of heart
- combination of previous ones
- involuntary
- contractions pump the blood

NERVOUS TISSUE
- made up of neurons (nerve cells) - usually don’t undergo cell division

- dendrite - short and numerous, receive signals from other neurons

- somd - contains cytoplasm and nucleus
- axon - usually only one, axon terminal - other neuron's dendrite is attached here
- myelin sheath - protein and fats, protects the axon, make sure the transfer of signals
in smooth

-neuroglial cells
- no transition signal
- support and nourish nervous cells

3
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
function:
- protection against pathogens, UV light, physical and chemical injuries
- thermoregulation
- vitamin D production
- sensations

structures:
- skin - hair - nails - glands (sweat, sebaceous)

SKIN
- all four types of tissues
- 1,8m2 - largest organ
- 15% of body weight
- 2 main layers - epidermis, dermis
- hypodermis
- fat layer (adipose tissue)
- beneath dermis

EPIDERMIS
- 4 to 5 layers
- uppermost layer is the only layer that is made up of dead cells, it is also shed and
replaced all the time
- keratinocytes
- differentiate from stem cells
- keratin - waterproof protein that makes our skin waterproof
- melanocytes
- produce melanin - skin pigment that determines the color of the skin
- protects the skin by absorbing ultraviolet rays from the sun
- melanoma - type of skin cancer

4
DERMIS
- thick layer
- contains both elastic and collagen fibers
- with age the elasticity is lost (wrinkles are created)
- botox - clostridium botulinum - paralyzes muscles
- contains blood vessels
- nourishment
- temperature regulation
- if temperature rises the vessels dilate (vasodilation)
- if temperature drops the vessels constrict (vasoconstriction)
- waste removal
- sensory receptors - touch, pressure, cold and heat detection, pain (free nerve
endings)
- hair follicle
- a living part - rapid reproduction of cells
- muscle attached that erects the hair
- sebaceous glands (oil) produce sebum that
lubricates skin and hair
- sweat glands
- the duct of sweat gland opens in epidermis,
takes the heat and evaporates with salts of
sodium

HAIR
- grow from hair follicles
- keratin - dead tissue
- does not contain any blood vessels or nerves
- everywhere except for feet, palms and lips
- grow 1 cm per month

5
NAILS
- grow from an area of rapidly dividing cells known - nail roots (near the tips of the
fingers and toes)
- nails grow at an average rate of 3mm pet month
- fingernails growing about four times faster than toenails
- living part - under the skin, close to the proximal end
- keratin
- no blood vessels no nerve ending

SKIN PROBLEMS, DISORDERS

ACNE
- sebum and dead skin cells form plugs in hair follicles
- bacteria are often trapped in the plug - infection and inflammation
- hypothesis - high hormone levels during puberty lead to increased sebum production

ECZEMA
- atopic dermatitis
- may be an allergic reaction
- itchy rash
- most common in children

VITILIGO
- skin loses its color
- melanocytes - dead or ot working
- cause - immune system, genetics - unknown

6
 SKIN CANCER
- malignant melanoma
A - asymmetry
B - border
C - color
D - diameter
E - evolving

SKELETAL SYSTEM
functions:
- mechanical support
- protection of soft body parts
- storage of certain minerals and fat
- production of blood cells
- permits flexible movement

206 bones together

BONES
- solid network of living cells and protein fibers
- surrounded by deposits of mineral salts (mainly calcium and phosphorus)
- different shapes/types:
- flat - skull, ribs
- long - shoulder bone
- sesamoid - knee cap
- short - wrist
- irregular - vertebrae

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LONG BONES
- epiphysis
- diaphysis

- periosteum (okostica)
- brings nourishment
- nerve endings
- nourishment in the form of blood supply

- compact bone
- beneath the periosteum, the outer thick layer of bones
- osteon
- osteocytes (living cells)
- exchange of nutrients and waste
- close to the centrum

- spongy bone
- less dense not let’s dance tissue
- under the outer layer of compact bone
- in the ends of long bones and in the middle of short, flat bones
- support

- bone marrow
- red bone marrow - stem cells that produce most
types of blood cells
- yellow marrow - cells that store fat, replaces red
bone marrow
- can be transplanted (blood is harvested, bone
marrow is filtered and then given to the patient)

8
DEVELOPMENT OF BONES
- the skeleton of a human embryo is composed of a cartilage at xy weeks
- gradually replaced by bone - ossification (begins up to seven months before birth,
some bones are not ossified until puberty bc it takes a long time)

- primary ossification center

- found in the middle of long bones
- starts before birth
- the cartilage start to deteriorate and the bone calcifies

- secondary ossification center

- epiphyses
- the same process as in the primary ossification center

- growth plates
- between primary and secondary ossification center
- when completely ossified, the person stops growing
- growth hormone
- triggers the growth length
- released mainly during the sleep
- it is produced by the pea-sized pituitary gland in brain
- acromegaly
- rare condition where the body produces too much growth hormone,
causing body tissue and bones to grow more quickly
- leads to abnormally large hands and feet and wide range of other
symptoms

- cartilage
- remains in flexible body parts (tip of the nose, external part of ears)
- cushions the areas where bones meet, such as in knee

9
BONE REMODELING AND REPAIRING
- osteoclasts
- resorb bone, assist in returning calcium and phosphate to
the blood
- osteoblasts
- form bone secrete, organic matrix of the bone
- promote calcium deposition in the matrix

- 18% of bone recycled each year

- bone remodelings - regulate the amount of calcium
- if the calcium level is too high - neurons and muscle cell no
longer function
- if the calcium level is too low - nerve and muscle cells excited - convulsions

SKELETON
- 206 bones
- Axial skeleton
- Appendicular skeleton

AXIAL SKELETON
- 80 bones along the central axis of the human body
- skull, vertebral column, the rib cage

SKULL
- braincase and facial skeleton
- frontal bone
- temporal bone
- parietal bone
- occipital bone
- sutures (svy)
- sphenoid bone (it’s inside)
- ethmoid bone (čuchová kosť)

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 FACIAL BONES
- zygomatic bones (jarmova)
- nasal bone
- maxilla
- mandible

- fontanelle - soft region of the head

where bones are not connected (in
small children so that they have place
to grow their heads hehe = age
determination)

RIB CAGE AND VERTEBRAL COLUMN

- vertebral column
- is made up of 33 vertebrae
- 5 regions of vertebral column
- cervical vertebrae (7)
- enable movement
- 1. atlas (nosič) - yes motion
- 2. axis (capovec) - no motion
- thoracic vertebrae (12)
- lumbar vertebrae (5)
- sacrum (5 fused vertebrae)
- coccyx (4 fused)
- skratky C4, T8 etc
- intervertebral disks (medzistavcove platnicky)
- absorb shock from movement
- prevent crushing, bending of your back too much

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 - rib cage
- 12 pairs of ribs
- flattened bones
- from the back attached to vertebrae
- types
- 7 true ribs
- connected directly connected to
sternum
- 3 false ribs
- attached to sternum by previous rib
- 2 floating ribs
- only attached to the vertebrae from the
back
- sternum

APPENDICULAR SKELETON
- 126 bones
- involved in locomotion (lower limbs) of the axial skeleton and manipulation of objects
in the environment (upper limbs)

UPPER LIMBS:
- scapula (lopatka)
- clavicle (klucna kost)
- humerus (ramenna kost)

- ulna (lakťová)
- radius (vretenna)

- 8 carpal bones (zapastne)

- 5 metacarpal (zaprstne)
- phalanges (clanky prstov)
- distal
- medial
- proximal

LOWER LIMBS
- pelvic bones (3 bones- ilium, pubis, ischium)
- femur
- knee cap - also called patella
- tibia
- fibula
- foot:
- 7 tarsal bones
-
- 5 metatarsal bones
- phalanges

- ♀&♂ - different skull and pelvis

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DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF SKELETAL SYSTEM
- incorrect postures
- vertebral disorders :
- scoliosis
- kyphosis
- lordosis

- osteoporosis
- weak and fragile bones
- easily breakable bones
- develops very slowly over a period of many years
- not treatable
- arthritis
- inflammation of joints
- difficulties with moving
- tiredness and poor sleep
- weight loss
- aches and pains

STRUCTURE OF JOINTS

- cartilage

🦴
- covers the surfaces where two
bones come together
- protects the bones from damage as
they move against each other
- fibrous joint capsule
- helps hold the bones together while
still allowing for movement
- ligaments
- hold bones together in a joint
- joint cavity
- inner layer of the joint capsule
produces a synovial fluid
- synovial fluid
- enables the surfaces of the bones
to slide over each other smoothly

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MUSCULAR SYSTEM
- movement
- protection of organs
- maintaining body temperature
- movement of fluids

types of muscle tissues

- smooth
- involuntary
- internal organs
- appear smooth under the microscope
- skeletal
- voluntary

🦴
- cells with multiple nuclei - more energy
- attached to bones
- controlled by nervous system

❤️
- cardiac
- heart

sartorius - biggest muscle

our inner ear - smallest
4 chewing muscles
muscles of neck - swallowing, speech, move the head
back muscles - head movements, stabilization of the body, backbone movement
pectoral muscles - 4, arm movement
muscles of arm - deltoid, biceps, triceps
abdominal muscles - organ protection, exhalation
glutes muscles - 3
leg muscles - quadriceps, hamstring

SYNERGISTIC MUSCLES
- primary mover
- synergistics help prime mover - makes the movement more efficient

ANTAGONISTIC MUSCLES
- muscles work in opposite pairs
- bending - straightening
- antagonists

FLEXORS & EXTENSORS (ohybace a vystierace)

ABDUCTORS & ADDUCTORS (odtahovce a pritahovace)
TENSORS(napinace) - balance of pelvis
SPHINCTERS (zvierace) - ending of digestive or urinary system - enclose the opening
DEPRESSORS (stlacovace) - muscle used when frowning

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CHARACTERISTICS OF MUSCLES
1) excitability - react to nerve impulses
2) contractility - ability to shorten
3) elasticity - can return to original length after being stretched

SKELETAL MUSCLES
- muscle fibers
- cells that are strong and slender
- filled with filament bundles called myofibrils
MYOFIBRILS
- thick filaments of a protein myosin
- thin filaments of a protein actin
- the actin filaments bound together in areas called 2 Z lines
- the 2 Z lines and the filaments between them make up a unit called sarcomere -
contractile unit of a muscle fiber

- muscle contractions - myosin filaments form cross-bridges with actin filaments

- the cross-bridges then change shape, pulling the actin filaments towards the center
of the sarcomere
- this action decreases the distance between the 2 lines, and the fibers shorten

3 conditions need to be present for contraction to occur:

1) nerve impulse
2) calcium
3) ATP molecules

TYPES OF MUSCLE FIBERS

red & white

RED:
- slow twitch muscle
- many mitochondria
- the dark color - small blood vessels that deliver blood from an oxygen
- strong protein - myoglobin
- aerobic exercises
- last longer, do not tire quickly
- work for longer periods of time
- exercises that require oxygen
- endurance activities - long-distance running

WHITE:
- fast-twitch muscle
- less mitochondria
- quickly tired
- contract more rapidly
- generate more force
- activities that require great strength or quick bursts of speed - sprinting

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RIGOR MORTIS
- stiffness of death
- stiffness occurs because muscles cannot relax unless they have a supply of ATP
- without ATP muscles remain fixed in their last state of contraction
- rigor mortis resolves approximately 24 to 36 hours after death
- muscles lose their stiffness because lysosomes rupture - lysosomes release
enzymes that break the bonds between the muscle proteins actin and myosin
- body temperature and rigor mortis allow the time of death to be estimated:
- 3 hours after: body is still warm, rigor mortis absent
- after 3 hours: rigor mortis starts to develop, body is cooler
- 8 hours after: body is in full rigor mortis, body temperature is the same as the
surroundings
- 24 hours after: body temperature is the same as the environment, there is no
longer trace of rigor mortis

ALS
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
- degenerative neuromuscular disease
- cause is unknown
- loss of ability to walk, talk, chew and swallow
- mental abilities and sensation are not affected
- the patient dies of respiratory complications within 3 years of diagnosis
- today we have drugs that slow the progression of the disease, but there remains no
cure

MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY
- progressive degeneration of muscles
- no cure
- inherited disease
- lack of dystrophin

-number of muscle cells is always the same, muscle cells cannot multiply 💪

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DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
function:
🍻
- to digest food (mechanically or chemically)
- absorption
- elimination (undigested ..)

organs of digestive system:

- oral cavity
- pharynx
- esophagus
- stomach
- small intestine
- large intestine
- anus

+liver, gallbladder, pancreas

ORAL CAVITY:
- biting, chewing, swallowing
- chemical and mechanical digestion
- mechanical digestion provided by teeth (32 together, 20 milk teeth)
- types of teeth:
- incisors 8 (rezaky)
- canines 4 (ocne)
- premolars 8 (crenove)
- molars 12 (stolicky)

- structure of a tooth:
- crown and root
- enamel
- not a living tissue
- outer, the hardest
(calcium phosphate)
- no blood vessels or nerves
- dentin
- softer than enamel
- mineralised connective tissue
- inside of the root
- blood vessels and nerves
- nourishment and sensitivity

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- salivary glands:
- 3 pairs
- during the day 0,5 - 1,5 liter of saliva
- saliva contains enzymes
- amylase (ptyalin)
- breaks down sugars (taste)
- lysozyme
- antibacterial effects
- tongue
- muscle that is responsible for mixing food and saliva together and swallowing
- taste receptors/buds

- pharynx
- 3 parts: Nasopharynx, Oropharynx,
Laryngopharynx
- respiratory and digestive function
- swallowing
- after certain part of pharynx, can no longer
control the muscles
- epiglottis - the correct tube, after swallow closed
entrance to respiratory system, also closed upper
part of the pharynx so that it doesn't go through
nose
- cannot swallow and breathe at the same time
(death of hunger or suffocation? hehehehehe funny jk)

- esophagus
- muscular tube
- we cannot control the movement
- peristalsis - muscle movement of digestive system,
movement of the food downwards
- sphincter(zvierac) - smooth muscle, opens and closes
- heartburn (palenie zahy) - content of stomach gets
back through sphincter into esophagus = needs to be
treated because the content can damage the tissue
- leads to stomach

- bolus (susto) - chewed food mixed with saliva

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- stomach (gaster)
- hollow and muscular
- stores the food (1.5 - 3l of food)
- chemical digestion
- gastric glands produce enzyme pepsin -
digestion of proteins
- inactive form - pepsinogen
- HCl - activates pepsinogen into pepsin
- mucus - cover inner lining of stomach
and prevents stomach from HCl damage
- chyme (travenina) - mixture of food and
different chemicals
- Gastrin - enzyme that increases mobility of stomach muscles
* Ghrelin
- hormone released by muscles of stomach
- hungry hormone that increases appetite
- mechanical digestion
- muscles mix bolus
- 3 types of muscles
- no absorption
- stomach ulcers (vredy)
- helicobacter - normally present in stomach, but if it is overpopulated
ulcers occur
- symptoms:
- nausea with vomiting
- dark or black colored stool
- blood vomits
- loss of weight
- feeling bloated
- heartburning sensation
- pyloric sphincter
- opens to small intestine
- Gastric Bypass - removal of a part of stomach (for extremely obese
people who need to lose weight)

- small intestine
- 6 meters long
- nutrients absorption
- 3 parts : Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum
- not smooth surface
- folded internal walls
- Villi (klky)
- capillaries - responsible for
nutrient absorption
- microvilli (mikroklky)
- first part - certain part of digestion
- other parts - absorption
-

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- large intestine = colon
- no digestion, no nutrients, all absorbed by
small intestine
- absorption of water
- cecum, appendix
- anus hahahhahhaahhahaha
- if too little water absorbed - diarrhea, if too
much - constipation
- bacteria (gut flora) - vitamin production (K,
B7)
- forms feces
- defecation reflex - regulated by autonomic
nervous system
- fermentation of undigested food occurs by
bacteria = formation of gas, build up of

😂😆
excessive gas == bloating (naduvanie)
- anus hahashah
- internal and external sphincter
- Pancreas, liver, gallbladder
- pancreas
- gland located behind the stomach
- digestive function, endocrine
function
- digestive enzymes into small
intestine: lipase (lipids), amylase(carbohydrates), trypsin (breaks down
proteins)
- liver (lat. hepard)
- 1,5 kg
- the largest gland
- stores glycogen (carbohydrate) - storage of sugar
- bile (zlc) - emulsification of fat (not chemical, but mechanical
breakdown of larger fat molecules into smaller parts)
- stores fat soluble vitamins (A,D,E,K)

🩸 🚢
- pancreas releases hormones - signal to convert glycogen into

🩸
glucose, then released into blood vessels
- detoxify the blood
- gallbladder
- storage of bile until necessary to use it, then it is released into the
small intestine
- gallstones - if liquid inside becomes solid - especially because of salts

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Metabolism and nutrients
- the food we eat needs to be digested to get into the cells
- biological oxidation - glucose gets to cells
- release energy stored in food molecules
- oxygen needed
- trapped in ATP
- general metabolism includes 2 processes
- catabolism - breaking down of complex molecules
- lipids - fatty acids
- proteins - amino acids
- energy released
- anabolism
- construction of larger molecules from smaller

💪
- amino acids for protein
- energy is used

- proteins
- build up muscles, organs, skin, bones, antibodies, enzymes, hormones, every
cell membrane
- essential amino acids - cannot be made by the body, so they must come from food

VITAMINS
fat-soluble vitamins
- A,D,E,K
- are absorbed by fat
- excess fat-soluble vitamins are stores in the liver and adipose tissues for future use
water-soluble vitamins
- all other than A,D,E,K
- dissolved in water
- absorbed for immediate use and excess is quickly passed in urine, thus needing to
be replenished regularly through diet

Hypervitaminosis
- caused by fat-soluble vitamins, D and A
- result of a very high dose of one or more multiple vitamin supplements
- symptoms: headache, weakness, dizziness, inability to exercise…
Hypovitaminosis
- deficiency of a vitamin
- symptoms: fatigue, bone pain, muscle weakness, muscle aches or cramps, mood
changes, depression…
- scurvy - caused by hypovitaminosis C
- beriberi - caused by thiamine deficiency
- rickets - caused by vitamin D deficiency
Avitaminosis - due to a lack of nutrition or unavailability of food with certain vitamins
- group of diseases that is due to a lack of one or more than one vitamin
- pellagra - deficiency of vitamin B1
- night blindness - insufficient amount of vitamin A

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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
functions:
- ventilation
- breathing in and out
- inhalation and exhalation (inspiration and expiration)
- gas exchange (between lungs and blood)

ORGANS

👃
UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT
Nasal cavity (nosová dutina)
- canals separated by septum
- air filtered, moistened and warmed
- mucus and hairs
- odor receptors = olfactory receptors
- skull sinuses (dutiny)

Pharynx (hltan)
- cavity at the back of the mouth
- nasopharynx
- respiration, breathing
- air from pharynx in the trachea
- Eustachian Tube - connects nasopharynx with middle ear
- soft palate - prevents food from going to nose (located in mouth)
- tonsils (mandle) - first line of defense bc it contains specific type of white blood cells -
lymphocytes (involved in immunity reactions)

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Epiglottis - a flap of tissue responsible for closing the entrance into the respiratory system
when swallowing the food

Larynx (hrtan)
- voice box
- vocal cords (hlasivky)
- elastic folds of tissue
- open when breathing, closed when talking
- when vocal cords vibrate, we produce sound
- surrounded and protected by cartilage - in men creates Adam’s apple

LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT

Trachea (priedušnica)
- anterior to esophagus (separated by muscular wall)
- connective tissue and smooth muscles
- C-shaped cartilaginous rings that prevent collapsing
- 10-13 cm long
- contains mucus produced by goblet cells
- cilia - lining the trachea, sweep both mucus and trapped particles away from the
lungs toward the pharynx
- divides into Bronchus (L and R) and then into Bronchioles

Bronchus, Bronchi (priedušky)

- two large tubes in the chest cavity
- cartilage which is lost in Bronchioles
Bronchioles (priedušničky)
- surrounded by smooth muscles
- controlled by the autonomic nervous system
Lungs (pluca) - alveoli
Diaphragm (branica)
Intercostal muscles (medzirebrove svaly)

Lungs
- directly attached to pleural membranes
- visceral pleura (poplucnica)
- parietal pleura (pohrudnica)
- fluid to lubricate for movement of lungs
- gas exchange - alveoli (plucne mechuriky) - increase the surface, grouped in
clusters, a network of capillaries

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 -
- higher concentration of oxygen in alveolus gets in the blood and co2 diffused
to alveolus (just concentration differences between blood and alveoli)

Pneumothorax - air gets in between the pleural membranes - collapsed lungs, has to be
treated not to be fatal

Ventilation
- diaphragm
- intercostal muscles
- inhalation
- active process
- diaphragm contracts and moves down
- ribs pulled outwards
- decreases pressure in the lungs - increases volume in the lungs - rushes the
air into the lungs
- exhalation
- passive process

🆙
- rib cage moves down
- diaphragm relaxed and moves up

💪
- smaller volume of the lungs, higher pressure, air pushed out
- passive because of relaxation of the muscles

🫁
Spirometer
- vital lung capacity
- normally 3-5 litres
- graph - total lung capacity
- never goes down because you cant exhale everything - around 1l

Breathing center
- part of the brain stem
- the medulla oblongata
- predlzena miecha
- breathing also when sleeping without realization

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Smoking
- nicotine - addictive substance
- carbon monoxide - blocks the bond with oxygen
- tar (decht) - toxic
- paralyzing cilia - cant work
- causes swelling of respiratory tract
- chronic bronchitis - inflammation of bronchi
- emphysema - alveoli lose their elasticity - tissue broken down completely
- lung cancer - the most preventable, 90% related to smoking

🚬
- stopping - lungs can regenerate quickly
- 10-15 years completely as before smoking

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BLOOD 🩸
- transport of oxygen, nutrients, waste, hormones
- thermoregulation
- blood clotting
- immunity
- 4,5 - 5,5 liters in adults
- 7-10% of body weight
- composition:
PLASMA

💦
- liquid
- yellowish portion that makes out about 55% of blood, 90 - 92% is water ,

🚢
then salts, minerals, proteins (albumins and globulins serve as antibodies,
fibrinogen - inactive protein, only activated when blood vessel injured, for
blood clots)
- blood cells produced in red bone marrow that contains stem cells, that after division
different forms of cells produced, as matured specialized

RED BLOOD CELLS

- erythrocytes
- 4-6 million in mm3
- transport gases
- molecule called hemoglobin
- consists of protein globin and heme, which is iron(ic)

🩸
- binds with o2 and transports to cells
- gives the color to blood
- shape is biconcave
- increases the area for oxygen bond, needs to fit in very small capillaries
- have no nucleus or other organelles
- oxygen is not consumed by red blood cells
- produces a little amount of atp - anaerobically
- limited life-span - 120 days (can't multiply)
- then destroyed in spleen and liver

🍖
- globin broken down into amino acids
- hemo taken back to bone marrow and reused
- sometimes kidneys release a hormone erythropoietin to bone marrow when we need
more blood cells - higher altitudes, sports

Anemia
- lack of iron(y :)
- blood loss
- body doesn't get enough oxygen
- pale skin
- shortness of breath
- sickle cell anemia
- genetic disorder
- weird shape of red blood cells
- live only about 90 days

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 - can rupture capillaries
- hemoglobin differently shaped
- can't get malaria

WHITE BLOOD CELLS (why blood cells)

- leukocytes
- much larger than red
- not so numerous, can be doubled in
an hour when body fighting sth
- have nucleus
- from red bone marrow
- diapedesis
- can slip through capillary walls
to get into cell that needs to be
destroyed because of infection
- happens thanks to chemotaxis
- movement as a response to
chemical stimulus
-
- several types of white blood cells
GRANULOCYTES
- noticeable granules in cytoplasm
- three types
- neutrophils
- the most noticeable of all 50-70%, first to respond to bacterial
infection, able to provide phagocytosis (papanie bakterie lol)
- eosinophils
- increase during parasitic infections, control mechanism associated
with allergy
- basophils
- contain histamine and heparin
(chemical against blood clotting)
AGRANULOCYTES
- no granules
- monocytes (papajuce auticka)
- largest active cells that can do
phagocytosis

🩸
- lymphocytes
- 20-30% of white cells
- responsible for specific immunity
to particular pathogen
- T cells (T=thymus, gland in our
chest)
- destroy pathogen directly
- B cells
- memory cells or plasma
cells

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PLATELETS (thrombocytes)

🦴 marrow
- not true cells

🩸
- fragments of the stem cell of the bone
- involved in clotting - coagulation

1. blood vessel is punctured

2. platelets congregate and form a plug
3. platelets and damaged tissue cells release prothrombin
activator, which initiates a cascade of enzymatic reactions
4. fibrin threads form and trap red blood cells
(prothrombin - thrombin, fibrinogen - fibrin)
- Ca2+, vitamin K
- anticoagulants - prevent spontaneous blood clots from
forming in our blood
- thrombus - krvná zrazenina (napr. plucna embolia)

Hemophilia
- inherited disorder
- deficiency of clotting factors
- dangerous - no clotting factors=bleeding out because of small injury

BLOOD GROUPS
- ABO system
- red blood cells: antigens on the surface
- antigen A, antigen B
- antibodies in plasma against your antigen (antigen A, antibody B)

blood group A, antigen A, antibodies anti-B

blood group B, antigen B, antibodies anti-A
blood group AB, antigen A and B, no antibodies (universal recipient)
blood group 0, none antigens, antibodies anti-A and anti-B (universal donor)

RH factor
- inherited protein found on the surface of red blood cells
- problem if mother is Rh negative and baby Rh positive

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Circulation

Cardiovascular system
- heart + vessels
- 3 types of blood vessels
- arteries (tepny)
■ carry blood from the heart
■ oxygenated blood except pulmonary ar. which carry blood to the lungs
■ thick wall of smooth muscle tissue
■ elastic layer (for when blood is pumped under higher pressure)
■ deeper in the ski (not visible)
■ the largest - aorta
■ krv strieka ked au
- veins
■ enter the heart from all body parts
■ deoxygenated blood, exception pulmonary veins
■ thinner, less pressure
■ closer to the skin, we can see them sometimes (to je hot af)
■ have valves (chlopne) prevent backflow of the blood
■ varicose veins (krcove zily) - valves not working properly, blood
sometimes goes backwards. change of the shape of the vessel, blood
clots risk
- arteries branch into arterioles(tepnicky), veins into venules(zilky)
- capillaries
■ narrow
■ thin
■ gas exchange

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 HEART ❤️
🫁
- cone shaped muscular organ
- located between the lungs right
behind the sternum
- apex tilted to the left (*dextrocardia,

👊
condition when to the right)
- similar to the size of the fist with the
other hand on top
- internal wall muscular tissue - myocard,
cardiac muscle
- surrounded with pericardium -
membranous sac that covers the heart
- septum separates the heart to L and R
part
- 4 chambers
■ upper - atria (predsieň) -
receive blood
■ lower - ventricles (komora) -
pumping the blood
- 4 valves
■ to prevent backflow when pumping
■ 2 - between atria and ventricles (atrio-ventricular)
● right part - tricuspid
● left part - bicuspid (meral)
■ 2 - semilunar
● ventricle and artery
- coronary arteries bring oxygen and nutrients to the muscle wall, on the
surface of the heart
- coronary veins remove and collect waste
- cardiac cycle
■ 2 phases

😎
■ contract atria, ventricles relaxed
■ contract ventricles, atria relaxed
■ systole - 1st phase
● working phase, chambers pumping, contraction
■ diastole - 2nd phase

😌
● resting stage, chamber filling with the blood
● walls relaxed
■ contractions regulated internally by internal cardiac conduction system
● enabled by nodal tissue - has both characteristics of muscular
and .. system so it creates its own electrical impulses and then
are transferred through the heart and the contractions can
occur

30
CIRCULATION

Superior and Inferior vena Cava

- two large veins bring deoxygenated
blood to the right atrium, then right
atrium contracts and through valve blood
enters right ventricle, then is blood
carried by pulmonary arteries to lungs to
get oxygen, in the lungs gas exchange
occurs, from the lungs through
pulmonary veins (4) blood goes to the
left atrium, left atrium contracts and
blood is brought to left ventricle and then
through aorta goes to the entire body

Systemic: heart and body

Pulmonary : heart and lungs

Pulse
- the regular rhythmic expansion of an artery caused by the ejection of blood into the
arterial system by the contractions of the heart

Blood pressure
systolic - measured while heart is pumping
diastolic - measured while heart and ventricles rest
- pressure of blood against wall of a vessel

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DISEASES OF THE HEART AND CIRCULATION
Heart attack
- can stop the heart from beating, to start the heart beating again it needs to be
massaged or given electrical shocks, can be treated by giving the patient coronary
bypass
Angina
- severe chest pain which results from the hardening of the coronary arteries which
restrict the flow of blood to the heart muscles, the heart keeps pumping bc it gets a
continuous supply of food and oxygen from the blood passing through the coronary
arteries
Arteriosclerosis
- hardening of arteries which makes them lose their elasticity, which makes it
impossible for the artery to stretch to accommodate the blood which is being forced
through
Atherosclerosis
- the diameter of the artery becomes narrower due to the build-up of fatty deposits of
cholesterol on the artery wall
Thrombosis
- the cholesterol build-up in an artery creates a very rough surface through which the
blood passes, this can result in the formation on blood clot which is released into the
blood flow, if the blood clot is large enough, it can block the narrower passages in an
artery and stop the blood flow through it

BLOOD AND CIRCULATION - TEST - 3.2.2023

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EXCRETORY SYSTEM
function:
- get rid of metabolic waste in liquid form
- byproducts of cellular activities
- ammonia - toxic byproduct of protein
breakdown, needs to be turned into less
toxic urea in liver

organs:
- kidneys (oblicky)
- ureters (močovody)
- bladder (mechur)
- urethra (mocova rura)

+ renal artery and renal vein

-right kidney is lower than the left one because of liver

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