HISTOLOGY UNIT II

CELLS, TISSUES, BONE AND

CARTILAGE FORMATION
CELLS
 Cells have 3 basic components:
– EXTRACELLULAR FLUID-tissue fluid & intercellular
substance
– CELL MEMBRANE
• phospholipid & protein bilayer
• receptors for biochemical products
– CYTOPLASM
• cytoskeleton for support
• organelles
• vacuoles & inclusions
CYTOPLASM
 Consistency between liquid & gel
 Cytoskeleton- 3 dimensional support
system made of
– microfilaments
– microtubules
– intermediate filaments
 Centrioles-2/cell, important in cell division
CYTOPLASM CONTENTS
 Organelles-membrane sacs perform cell
functions
– Nucleus-DNA & RNA, control center
– Mitochondria-energy/ATP
– Ribosomes-protein production
– Endoplastic Reticulum-protein modification
– Golgi Complex-p.modification & release
– Lysosomes-phagocytic enzymes
CELL JUNCTIONS
 Mechanical connections between cells-
desmosomes; or between cells and
non-cellular surfaces-hemidesmosomes
(can anybody think of an example of
this? Find the answer in your reading)
 Composed of attachment plaques and
tonofibrils
BASIC TISSUES
 4 Types of tissues:
– Epithelial
– Connective
– Muscle
– Nerve
– Yes, you should remember the embryonic
derivation of each tissue type
TISSUE COMPONENTS
 CELLS
 EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX or
INTERCELLULAR SUBSTANCE
 TISSUE FLUID
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
 Embryonic origin: ectoderm, endoderm
 Characteristics:
– sheets of cells
– little intercellular substance
– usually avascular
– cell junctions
– rapid regeneration
– contains other cell types
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
 Functions:
– Protection
– Secretion
– Absorption
– Transport
– Lubrication
– Sensory Perception
– Excretion
Epithelial Tissue Classifications
 Number of cell layers:
– Simple
– Stratified
– Psuedostratified
 Cell shape:
– squamous
– cuboidal
– columnar
Epithelial Tissue Classifications
 Specialization in the oral cavity:
– Keratinized-free & attached gingiva
(gingival tissue we can see)
– Non-keratinized-sulcular lining, buccal
mucosa, ventral surface of tongue, soft
palate
– Parakeratinized-hard palate
 Most oral epi. is stratified squamous
BASEMENT MEMBRANE
 Separates epi from ct
 Supports, connects, barrier protection
 Acellular, 2 layer:
– Basal layer/lamina (epi derived)
• lamina lucida
• lamina densa
– Reticular layer (ct derived)
MUSCLE TISSUE
 Embryonic origin: mesoderm, somites
 Characteristics:
– Mostly composed of cells
– Cells large & visible, called fibers
– Cells have multiple nuclei
– Protein filaments (actin & myosin) in
cytoplasm
– Cells held together by ct sheath/framework
Muscle Tissue Terminology
 Cell membrane called SARCOLEMA
 Cytoplasm called SARCOPLASM
 Cells are called FIBERS
 Fibers are made of MYOFIBERS
 Myofibers are made of MYOFILAMENTS
 Myofilaments are made of ACTIN &
MYOSIN
Muscle Tissue Organization-118
 Each fiber covered by ct sheath-
ENDOMYSIUM
 Fiber +Endomysium grouped into bundles
called FASICLES
 Fasicles covered by ct sheath-
PERIMYSIUM
 Fasicles+Perimysiumbundled together-
EPIMYSIUM; whole=MUSCLE
Role of CT Sheaths
 Biomechanical:
– supports cells and holds cells together
– transmits contractions
– binds muscle to attachment
directly/indirectly
 Physiologic:
– carries blood vessels and nerves
Types of Muscle Tissue
 Smooth:
– involuntary
– associated with autonomic nervous system
– bv walls, lymphatics, skin, digestive system
 Heart/Cardiac:
– involuntary
– striated
– Purkinje fibers
Types of Muscle Tissue
 Skeletal/striated:
– Voluntary
– Movement/contraction called action,
initiated by motor nerves
– Attachments to skeleton
• Origin
• Insertion
• Intermediate attachments
Relationship to Nerves
 Myoneural/neuromuscular junction
 Neuron+Muscle cell=Motor Unit
 Energy expenditure hi for skeletal
muscles
 Contraction caused by actin and myosin
filaments sliding over each other
NERVE TISSUE
 Embryonic Origin: ectoderm (neural
crest)
 Organization:
– Cell body=Neuron/Perikaryon
– Dendrites=neural process that receive stimuli
– Axon=neural process that conducts stimuli away
from cell body
– Synapse=junction btwn neurons/ neurons+organ
NERVE TISSUE
 Types of nerves:
– Afferent/sensory-carries info from
peripherey of body to brain
• taste, pain, proprioception
– Efferent/motor-carries info from brain to
peripherey of body
• muscle activation
Nervous System
 Central Nervous System:
– Brain
– Spinal Cord
 Peripheral Nervous System:
– Autonomic nervous system-efferent nerves
• Sympathetic
• Parasympathetic
CRANIAL NERVES
 5th or TRIGEMINAL
 7th or FACIAL
 9th or GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL
 12th or HYPOGLOSSAL
 CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Embryonic origin: mesoderm,
mesenchyme
 Characteristics:
– most diverse tissue type
– wide variety of cells
– may be loose, dense, fluid, rigid,
mineralized, non-mineralized
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Significance to dental hygiene:
– Structures of the periodontium are ct (G-
has an epi covering, C, PDL, AVB)
– All tooth structures except enamel are ct
– Defense cells are ct cells (PMNs, monos,
macros, eosinophils, basophils)
– Immunocompetent cells are ct cells (B & T
lymphocytes, plasma cells)
Connective Tissue Functions
 Structural support
 Metabolic activities between blood,
tissues and cells
 Defense:
– phagocytic cells
– immunocompetent cells
– cells with pharmacologic action
Classification of CT Types
 Embryonic – Dense Regular-
– Mesenchyme tendons, ligaments
– Mucous ct – Adipose
 Mature/CT Proper:
 Specialized CT
– Loose- irregular- – Blood & Lymph
fascia underlying – Cartilage
epithelial lining tissue – Bone
– Dense Irregular-ct
capsules & dermis
Components of CT
 3 components:
 Ground substance
 Fibers
 Cells
Components of CT-Ground Sub.
 Intercellular ground substance-forms the
matrix for other 2 components
– consistency varies-fluid to gel
– made of proteoglycans (PG) which help
regulate collagen fiber formation & chemically
linked to glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)
– functions of ground substance:
• electrolyte balance
• prevent spread of foreign matter & pathogens
CT-GAGs
 Hyaluronic acid
 Chondroitin 4 sulfate
 Chondroitin 6 sulfate
 Dermatan sulfate
 Keratan sulfate
 Heparan sulfate & heparin
 *all can act as histochemical markers for oral
health or disease-why??
Components of CT-Fibers
 Fibers (formed by fibroblasts):
– Reticular
– Collagen-significant to dh; predominant
fiber in the periodontium, made of proteins
(tropocollagens)
– Elastic
 Fibers imbedded in Ground Substance
= Extracellular Matrix
CT Fibers & the Periodontium
 Collagen fibers are found in
– gingiva-fibers are arranged in bundles & help
adapt tissue to tooth surface & connect tissue to the
periosteum
– periodontal ligament-fibers are arranged in
groups, ends of fibers are embedded in cementum
and in the AVB (Sharpey’s fibers)
– cementum-fibers are embedded in the calcified
matrix of this tooth layer
– AVB-form major part of bone matrix
Components of CT-Cells
 Cells-wide variety of cell types are found
in CT
 All ct cells are derived from stem cells;
these are undifferentiated cells capable of
specialization
 2 forms of stem cells:
– undifferentiated mesenchymal cell
– hematopoietic stem cell
Cells formed by mesenchymal
stem cells
 Fibroblast-forms fibers *collagen synthesis
 Adipocyte
 Chondroblast-cartilage former; chondrocyte
 Osteoblast-bone former, collagen former in
mineralized tissues; osteocyte
 Mesothelial cell
 Endothelial cell
Cells formed by hematopoietic
stem cells
 Mast cell-contain biochemical mediators
 Red blood cells/Erythrocytes
 Platelets
 White blood cells/Leukocytyes:
– PMNs/neutrophils
– Lymphocytes-Ts, Bs, plasma cells
– Monocytes-macrophages
• osteoclasts *not a WBC but is a phagocytic cell
– Eosinophils
– Basophils
Specialized connective tissues
 Cartilage:
– Rigid
– Non-mineralized
 Bone:
– Rigid
– Mineralized
CHONDROGENESIS
 Cartilage characteristics:
– Avascular
– No nerve supply
– 75% intercellular ground substance
– Rapid growth in low O2 environment
– Embryonic skeleton
– Model for adult skeleton
Cartilage formation
 Mesenchymal cells differentiate into
chondroblasts
 Chondroblasts secrete matrix
– Matrix = Fibers + Ground Substance
 Matrix surrounds & traps cblasts in lacunae

 Matrix + trapped cell = chondrocyte

 Appositional & interstitial growth
Cartilage Structure
 Cartilage (cells trapped in matrix)
surrounded by
 Perichondrium:
– dense fibrous ct
– composed of fibroblasts
– contains mesenchymal cells (potential cblasts)
– contains blood vessels
– site of muscle attachments, gives shape
Types of cartilage
 Hyaline  Fibrocartilage
– resists compression
– movement @ joints
– fetal skeleton,
articular surfaces,
costal cartilage
 Elastic
– stiff but flexible
– ears, epiglottis, larynx
– no perichondrium
– compression &
tension
– hi collagen content
– intervertebral discs,
pubic symphysis,
tendon attachments
OSTEOGENESIS
 Bone characteristics:
– Specialized rigid mineralized tissue
• 50% organic-cells, intercellular substance (collagen
fibers + ground substance = osteoid matrix)
• 50% inorganic-hydroxyapatite salts
– Organ-skeleton
• support & protection
• hemopoetic tissue
• calcium & phosphorus ion reservoir
Bone Formation
 Mesenchymal cells differentiate to form
osteoblasts
 Osteoblasts secrete matrix
– Matix = Fibers + Ground Substance
 Matrix surrounds & traps oblast in lacunae
 Matrix + trapped cell = osteocyte
 Constant apposition & resorption
Bone Cells & Functions
 Progenitor cells  Osteoclasts
– undifferentiated stem – resorption
cell population – multinucleated giant
 Osteoblasts cell
– secrete matrix – phagocytosis of
– deposit inorganic salts matrix & salts
– formation/resorption  Bone lining cells
 Osteocytes – line bone surface
– mature oblast – ion exchange
BONE STRUCTURE
 Periosteum-outer ct membrane layer,
contains progenitor cells
 Compact bone-solid, layered, Haversian
systems
 Endosteum-inner ct membrane layer,
contains progenitor cells
 Spongy/trabecular bone-thin layers of
bony plates with spaces
CLASSIFICATION OF BONE
 TEXTURE:  HISTOLOGIC
– Compact ORGANIZATION:
– Cancellous/spongy – Woven/reticular
• immature
 DEVELOPMENT:
• low collagen &
– Intramembraneous minerals
• directly from
– Lamellar
mesenchymal cells
• mature
– Endochondrial • layers
• cartilage model
• highly mineralized