Histology

Organization of living matter

-cells: smallest unit
-tissues: group of common cells for common purpose
● Epithelium
● Connective
● Muscle
● Nervous
-organs: group of common tissues for common purpose
-organ systems: group of organs for common purpose
-organism: all organ systems organized for common purpose

1.)Epithelial tissue
-forms glandular tissue and lines the lumen of tubular organs and body cavities
-externally covers the body and organs
-secretes and absorbs nutrients
-consists of cells anchored to a basal membrane with apical (specializes: cillia, microvilli) and
basal surfaces
-avascular
-basal membrane (BM, also called basal lamina) anchors epithelium to underlying
connective tissue (CT) where they can get nutrients through diffusion
-BM is a thin layer of extracellular matrix (ECM) bw the epithelium and CT
-basal layer is able to undergo mitosis
-metaplasia: alteration in adult tissues that produces a significant change in their type, or
distribution of cells normally expressed (usually a response to physical or chemical stress)

Classification of epithelium
-layers
● Simple: one layer of epithelial cell (EC) bonded to BM
● Stratified: more than one layer of EC bonded to BM
-shape of cells
● Squamous: flat nucleus and dome like appearance
● Cuboidal: square shaped cells, nucleus in the center and spherical
● Columnar: long cells with elongated nucleus
-specializations
● Ciliated: task for moving substances with the cilia found on the apical side of the cell
● Microvilli: increasing surface area of the apical side of the cell
● Keratinized: protects cell from external damage
Types of epithelium
-simple epithelia (squamous)
● Location: alveoli, endothelial lining of heart and blood vessels, lymphatic vessels,
thyroid glands
● Function: materials pass through low epithelium by filtration and diffusion, can secrete
lubricating substances
-simple epithelia (cuboidal)
● Location: kidney tubules, secretory portions of small glands and ducts
● Function: absorbs and secretes substances
-simple epithelia (columnar)
● Location: ciliated tissues: in uterine (fallopian tube), bronchi, uterus
non-ciliated tissues: digestive tract
● Function: absorption, secretion of mucous and various enzymes

-stratified epithelia (squamous)

● Location: skin, lining of oral cavity, esophagus
● Function: protection against abrasion
-stratified epithelia (cuboidal)
● Location: salivary/sweat/larger/mammary/prostate glands
● Function: transport, protection (from transported substances)

-pseudostratified epithelia (columnar)

● Location: lining the trachea and most upper respiratory tract
● Function: secretes mucus (chemical protection), moves mucus
● Non-keratinized: vagina, esophagus, some oral epithelium
● Keratinized: skin, some oral epithelium

-neurophelium
● Location: kidney, ureters, bladder, part of urethra
● Function: specialized for stretching (can appear stratified but most are in contact with
BL/BM)

2.)Connective tissue
-made up of ECM (ground tissues, protein fibers), resident cells and transient cells
-provides a matrix to support and physically connect tissues and cells to form organs
-provides metabolic support
-diffusion of nutrients and waste products
-defense, protecton, repair
-Develops from mesodermal cells that migrate into developing organs
-Embryonic tissue formed by elongated, spindle-like undifferentiated cells
-Gives rise to most types of CT as well as stem cells for blood, endothelium and muscle

Extracellular matrix components

-fibers
● Collagen fibers (collagen I)
Location: tendons, dermis, organ capsules, fibrocartilage, scar tissue
Function: resist stretching, provides tensile strength
● Reticular fibers (collagen II)
Location: extensible organs, stroma of smooth muscles, artery walls, intestines, glands
Function: provides structural framework and stability
● Elastic fibers (elastin)
Location: larynx, skin, trachea, Ct of eyes
Function: add resiliency to CT, maintain extensive organs features
-ground substance
● Glycoconjugates (glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans, adhesive glycoproteins
● Tissue fluid

Connective tissue cell types (permanent cells)

-fibroblasts
● Function: secrete ground substance and fibers
● Myofibroblasts: appears after damage, contract like smooth muscle, secrete matrix and
cytokines, heavily involved in regeneration and repair
-macrophages
● Function: phagocytosis, secrete cytokines and enzymes, present antigens to T
lymphocytes, involved in sensing damage and wound repair
-adipocytes
● Function: stores lipid, insulate, make hormones
-mast cells
● Function: stores and releases substances mediating inflammatory response (histamine,
heparin, leukotrienes)

Connective tissue cell types (transient cells)

-lymphocyte
● Function (T): helper and cytotoxic cells
● Function (B): produce plasma cells
-plasma cell
● Function: produces protein and antibodies (found in tissue, not blood)
-neutrophil/eosinophil
● Function: first responder to tissue damage and infection (followed by macrophage)

Types of connective tissue

-connective tissue proper
● Loose CT: more cells are ground substance, physically loose and pliable, fewer fibers
(thinner and widely spaced), most cell types are present
Location: under epithelia, forms stroma, fills spaces bw tissues and organs
Function: supports the epithelium and allows it to move and changeű shape easily
● Dense irregular CT: more and thicker fibers, fewer cells and less ground substance,
fibers are arranged randomly, tough and resistant to stretching
Location: deeper dermis, organ capsules, submucosa of intestine
Function: supports the epithelium and lamina propria, transmits peristaltic contraction
● Dense regular CT: more fibers, fewer cells and less ground substance, fibroblasts are
wedged in bw collagen fibers, fibers are managed in the same direction
Location: tendons and ligaments
Function: connecting organs and muscles
 ● Adipose CT: made up of closely packed adipocytes and have their nucleus pushed to
the side
Location: under skin, around kidneys, eyeballs, breasts, within abdomen
Function: protects organs, maintains insulation and stores energy
-cartilage
● Hyaline cartilage: hydrated and slippery, to help the bones move smoothly
Location: at the end of bones that form joints, bw ribs, nasal passages
Function: allows easy movement bw bones while keeping them in place
● Fibrocartilage: made of thick fibers, strongest and least flexible cartilage
Location: knee (meniscus), disks between vertebrae
Function: supporting muscles, tendons and ligaments
● Elastic cartilage: most flexible cartilage
Location: external ears, Eustachian tubes, larynx
Function: supports body parts that need to be bent and then bounce back to original
-bone (composition cells)
● Osteoblasts: secrete bone matrix and build new bone
● Osteocytes: mature osteoblasts that reside in lacunae and monitor/maintain the ECM
● Osteoclasts: secretes enzymes that catalyze the breakdown of bone matrix (Ca + P)
-blood (composition cells)
● Red blood cells: transports o2
● White blood cells: immune defense
● Platelets: blood clotting
● Plasma: h20, nutrients, the ECM of blood

3.) Muscle tissue

-specialized for contraction
-derived from mesoderm
-contains myofilaments: actin + myosin
-ATP hydrolysis provides the energy for contraction

Types of muscle tissue

-skeletal muscle (endomysium, perimysium, epimysium)
● Location: all muscle attached to a bone
● Function: posture, breathing, moving, stores energy, controlling glucose
-smooth muscle
● Location: walls of arteries/veins/organs/airways, muscles attached to hair
follicles/adjusting pupil diameter/lens focus
● Function: involuntary movements
-cardiac muscle
● Location: walls of the heart
● Function: involuntary heart palpitations
4.) Nervous tissues
Types of neuroglia (supportive cells)
-oligodendrocytes: produce myelin surrounding neuronal axons in the CNS
-Schwann cells: produce myelin surrounding neuronal axons in the PNS
-astrocytes: regulate transmission of electric impulses in neurons and supports the
blood-brain barrier
-ependymal cells: lines the ventricular sys. of the brain
-microglia: immune cells that serve as macrophages

Neuron structure
-dendrite: conduct information towards the cell body
-soma: cell body
-axon: built up from Schwann cells, conducts info. to another neuron (synapse-receptors)

Neuron classification
-sensory: conducts an action potential towards the CNS
-motor: conduct an action potential away from the CNS
-interneuron: connects the two above

5.) Embryonic development

Germ layers of skin
-ectoderm
● Epidermis of skin and its derivatives (inc. sweat glands, hair follicles)
● Epithelial lining of mouth and anus
● Cornea and lens of eye
● Nervous sys (sensory receptor in epidermis)
● Adrenal medulla
● Tooth enamel
● Epithelium of pineal and pituitary glands
-mesoderm
● Notochord
● Skeletal sys
● Muscular sys
● Muscular layering of stomach and intestine
● Excretory sys
● Circulatory and lymphatic sys
● Reproductive sys (except germ cells)
● Dermis of skin
● Adrenal cortex
-endoderm
● Epithelial lining of digestive tract
● Epithelial lining of respiratory sys
● Lining of urethra, urinary bladder
● Reproductive sys
● Liver, pancreas, thymus
● Thyroid and parathyroid glands

Formation of animal tissues

-zygote undergoes mitotic cell division to produce an embryo
-unspecialized cells become arranged into the 3 germ layers
-cell division and differentiation in the germ layers lead to specialized tissues forming organs