BAPI-004

Production Technology
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Agriculture of Fruit Crops

Block

2
SUB TROPICAL FRUITS
UNIT 1
Mango 47

UNIT 2
Banana 70

UNIT 3
Citrus 87

UNIT 4
Grape 109

UNIT 5
Litchi and Jamun 130

UNIT 6
Guava and Pomegranate 150

UNIT 7
Sapota and Jackfruit 175

43
 Programme and Course Design Committee
Dr. K. Prathapan, Dr. Harpal Singh,
Mission Director, State Horticulture Mission- Principal Scientist (Rtd.), G-20/A, Kiran
Kerala (Govt. of Kerala), Sunny Dale, Mead’s Garden, Main Najafgarh Road, Uttam Nagar,
lane, Palayam, Trivandrum-695034 (Kerala) New Delhi-110059 (Delhi)

Dr. Room Singh, Dr. S.V.S. Rathore,

Principal Scientist (Rtd.),HIG-II/110, Swarn B-39, HIG, Near Paschim Crossing, Shastri
Jayanti Nagar, Ramghat Road, Aligarh-202001 Puram, Agra-282007 (Uttar Pradesh)
(Uttar Pradesh)
Dr. R.L. Mishra,
Dr. S.S. Sindhu, C-04, Brahma Apartment, Plot-7, Sector-7,
Principal Scientist, Department of Floriculture Dwarka, New Delhi-110075 (Delhi)
and Landscaping, Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, Pusa, New Delhi-110012 (Delhi) Dr. Neera Kapoor,
Professor, Life Science, School of Science,
Dr. Prabhat Kumar, IGNOU, Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110068
Assistant Professor, Department of (Delhi)
Horticulture, College of Agriculure, G. B. Pant
University of Agriculture and Technology, Faculty from School of Agriculture
Pantnagar, Dist. US Nagar-263145 Prof. B.S. Hansra, Director
(Uttarakhand) Prof. M.K. Salooja, Professor
Dr. S.K. Yadav, Reader
Dr. M.K. Sheikh, Dr. P.K. Jain, Lecturer
Head & Professor, Horticulture College of Dr. P. Vijayakumar, Lecturer
Agriculture, University of Agricultural Er. Mukesh Kumar, Lecturer
Sciences, P.B. No.-18, Bijapur-586101 Dr. Mita Sinhamahapatra, Lecturer
(Karnataka)

Dr. P.K. Jain,

Professor & Head, Department of Horticulture,
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Viswavidyala,
Jabalpur-482004 (Madhya Pradesh)

Programme Coordinator : Dr. S.K. Yadav

Block Preparation Team
Writer Editor
Dr. Amit Kumar, (Unit 1-7) Dr. Ram Asrey, (Unit 1-7)
Asst. Prof. (Horticulture), KVK/ETC, Principal Scientist, Indian Agricultural
SKUAST-K, Malangora, Pulwama-192308 Research Institute (IARI), Pusa,
(J&K) New Delhi-110012

Course Coordinator : Dr. S. K. Yadav

Material Production
Mr. Rajiv Girdhar, Mr. Hemant Parida,
Assistant Registrar (Publication) Section Officer (Publication)
MPDD, IGNOU MPDD, IGNOU
March, 2021
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2021
ISBN: 978-93-90496-95-2
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph
or any other means, without permission in writing from the Copyright holder.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be
obtained from the University’s office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official
website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in.
Printed and published on behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by
Registrar, MPDD, IGNOU.
44 Composed & Print by : Hi-Tech Graphics, D-4/3, Okhla Industrial Area, Phase-II, New
Delhi-110020
BLOCK 2 SUB TROPICAL FRUITS
Like temperate fruits, the sub-tropical fruits are also important. These fruit
crop can withstand against more heat and other adversaries. Their acreage is
more than tropical fruits in our colony. Most of the fruit croups belong to
their group. For our daily nutritional requirement, these are important group
of fruit crops. These fruits are very much familiar to all of you. The nature,
their planting pattern and other production and utilization related aspects
have been dealt in this block.
This block has 07 units. Their details are as follows:
Unit 1 – Mango. The mango is known as king of fruits in India. All aspects
of mango production are described in this unit.
Unit 2 – Banana. Banana is important fruit and also few cultivars are used
for vegetable purpose.
Unit 3 – Citrus. Citrus consists of many crops such as Lemon, sweet lemon,
grape fruit etc. All aspects of production management of citrus crops are
explained in this unit.
Unit 4 – Grape. All production aspects of grape have been described in this
unit.
Unit 5 – Litchi and Jamun. These are important fruit available during
summer and rainy seasons. All aspects of these crops have been described in
this unit.
Unit 6 – Guava and Pomegranate. Guava and Pomegranate production
have been described in this unit.
Unit 7 – Jackfruit and Sapota. All production related aspects of Jackfruit
and Sapota have been described in this unit.

45
Sub Tropical Fruits

46
 Mango
UNIT 1 MANGO (Mangifera indica L.)
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Area and Production
1.3 Soil
1.4 Climate
1.5 Commercial Varieties
1.5.1 Dashehari
1.5.2 Langra
1.5.3 Chausa
1.5.4 Bombay Green
1.5.5 Fazli
1.5.6 Zardalu
1.5.7 Gulabkhas
1.5.8 Alphonso
1.5.9 Kesar
1.5.10 Bangalora
1.5.11 Neelum
1.5.12 Swarnarekha
1.5.13 Banganpalli
1.5.14 Mulgoa
1.6 Hybrids
1.7 Planting
1.8 Propagation
1.8.1 Inarching
1.8.2 Layering/Cutting/Budding
1.8.3 Veneer Grafting and Side Grafting
1.8.4 Stone Grafting and Epicotyl Grafting
1.8.5 Preparation of Scion and Rootstock
1.9 Nutritional requirements
1.9.1 Non-bearing trees
1.9.2 Bearing trees
1.10 Cultural Practices
1.10.1 Training and Pruning
1.10.2 Top Working
1.10.3 Interculture
1.10.4 Irrigation
1.10.5 Intercropping
47
Sub Tropical Fruits 1.11 Pests and Diseases
1.11.1 Insects-Pests
1.11.1.1 Mango Hopper
1.11.1.2 Mango Mealy Bug
1.11.1.3 Mango Stone Weevil
1.11.1.4 Fruit Fly
1.11.1.5 Stem Borer
1.11.1.6 Shoot Borer
1.11.2 Diseases
1.11.2.1 Powdery Mildew
1.11.2.2 Anthracnose
1.11.2.3 Bacterial Canker
1.12 Physiological Disorder
1.12.1 Alternate Bearing
1.12.2 Mango Malformation
1.12.3 Black Tip
1.12.4 Spongy Tissue
1.13 Harvesting
1.14 Storage
1.15 Packaging and Transportation
1.16 Processing
1.17 Let Us Sum Up
1.18 Key Words
1.19 Further References
1.20 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be in a position to:
• explain the history, botany and uses of mango,
• discuss status of area and production of mango,
• describe the soil, climatic and nutritional requirements,
• identify the different varieties by their names and characteristics,
• describe the planting, propagation methods and other cultural practices,
• describe various pests-diseases and physiological disorders, and
• explain how and when the harvesting, storing, packaging and
transportation to be done.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
48 The mango (Mangifera indica L.) because of its great utility, occupies an
eminent place amongst the fruit crops Mango
grown in India and is acknowledged
as the “King of fruits”. It is one of the
oldest cultivated fruit crop, having
been grown in India for at least 4000
years. At present more than 100
countries produce mangoes. The fruit
occupies an important socio-
economic position in India and South-
East Asian countries. The well known
‘Lakh bagh’, known to be stocked Mango Fruits
with 1,00,000 mango trees, was
planted near Darbhanga in Bihar state by Akbar.
Mango belongs to the family
Anacardiaceae and genus Mangifera
and has been originated in South East
Asia. The genus has 69 species, out
of which only a few have edible fruits.
In India, only three species are found
i.e. Mangifera indica, M. sylvatica
and M. coloneura. The species
Mangifera indica bears edible fruits
whereas other two species are wild
and bears non-edible fruits. The tree
Mango Flower
is evergreen, medium in size and
erect. Inflorescence of mango is branched panicle. Mango fruit is drupe and
mesocarp is the edible portion. Fruit size, shape, colour, flavour and taste
vary according to variety. The colour of the skin varies from green, yellow,
red or any shade of the colour.
Mangoes are consumed fresh as either
green or mature ripe or processed into
numerous products. Mango possesses
unique nutritional and medicinal
qualities apart from being a rich
source of vitamin A and C. The green
fruits are used for the preparation of
chutneys and pickles. Ripe fruits are
a delicacy for the table purpose while
the unmarketable and inferior one’s
can be converted into delicious
Mango Products
squash, juice, nectar, syrup, jam and
jelly. Canned mango slices and pulp are also very popular.

1.2 AREA AND PRODUCTION

India is the largest mango producing country, accounting for 41.0 per cent of
the world production. The total mango production of the country is 13792.1
thousand mt from an area of 2205.6 thousand ha. which covers 38.0 per cent
of total area under fruits. The main mango growing states in the country are 49
Sub Tropical Fruits Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, West Bengal, Kerala,
Karnataka, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Orissa and Maharashtra.

1.3 SOIL
Soil requirement of mango is not very particular. It can grow well in all types
of soil from alluvial to lateritic. For better performance, it requires deep (2 to
2.5 m) and well drained soils of loamy texture. Soils which lack proper
drainage are not suitable for its cultivation. It grows successfully in soft rocky
areas of the west coast. Likewise soils with a hard pan or a compact canker
layer underneath or with a high water table or those liable to be flooded are
also unsuitable. Before planting an orchard of mango, both soil and sub-soil
should be got examined thoroughly. The pH of the most well known mango
regions varies from 5.5 to 7.5. Soils with higher or lower values than the
above optimum range should be avoided.
Table 1: Statewise area, production and productivity in
total of Mango during 2017-18.

Sl. State Area Production Productivity

No. (000 ha.) (000 mt.) ha/mt
1 Uttar Pradesh 265.62 4551.83 17.14
2 Andhra Pradesh 363.00 4373.61 12.05
3 Bihar 149.28 2443.47 16.37
4 Karnataka 183.23 1760.60 9.61
5 Tamil Nadu 152.57 1234.00 8.09
6 Gujarat 162.77 1207.78 7.42
7 Telangana 115.99 1080.14 9.31
8 West Bengal 103.25 918.35 8.89
9 Odisha 199.08 805.77 4.05
10 Maharashtra 166.76 791.36 4.75
11 Kerala 83.12 439.20 5.28
12 Others 313.46 2216.22 7.10
Total 2258.13 21822.32 110.06

1.4 CLIMATE
Although essentially it is a tropical fruit. The mango can grow from sea level
to an altitude of about 1400 m provided there is no high humidity, rain or
frost during the flowering period. In general, it does best in comparatively
dry regions which receive good rainfall in hot weather from June to September,
followed by a more or less dry spell in the subsequent period. A rainfall of
about 125 cm falling mostly during the monsoon is considered very suitable,
but much less of it will be sufficient if irrigation facilities are available. It
does well within a temperature range from 24 to 27°C, although it can
successfully grow even temperatures as high as 48°C, during the period of
fruit development and maturity, if facilities for irrigation at regular intervals
during this period are available. Higher temperatures during the period of
fruit development hasten maturity and improve fruit size and quality. The
50
low temperature (freezing) and frosts during the period of flowering is harmful. Mango
Localities which experience bright sunny days and a relatively low humidity
during flowering period are ideal for mango cultivation.
The frequency of winds, their intensity and speed, has also to be taken into
account while selecting sites for mango orchards. Besides causing shedding
of flowers and fruits, strong winds also cause mechanical injuries to the trees.
The damage caused by the winds can however, be minimized by planting
windbreaks of tall and hardy trees around mango orchard.

1.5 COMMERCIAL VARIETIES

About a thousand varieties of mango are known to exist in India. Most of
them have originated as a superior chance seedlings, arising from natural
crossing or gene mutation. These selections were later maintained true to
type through asexual propagation. All the varieties are location specific and
the commercial varieties of one region do not do so well when grown in
other areas. Most popular commercial varieties of different regions are:
Northern region : Dashehari, Langra, Chausa and Bombay Green
Eastern region : Fazli, Zardalu and Gulabkhas
Western region : Alphonso, Kesar
Southern region : Bangalora, Neelum, Swarnarekha, Banganpalli,
Mulgoa
1.5.1 Dashehari
This is the most popular cultivar of northern India because of its attractive
appearance, excellent and pleasing flavour. It is a mid-season cultivar maturing
towards the end of June. The fruits are medium in size (4 to 8 per kg), elliptical-
oblong in shape, and have an attractive greenish yellow colour. It is good
cropper, though biennial in bearing.

1.5.2 Langra
Some people in the north, rank it even higher than Dashehari. It is also a
mid-season cultivar. The fruits are large in size (3 to 4 per kg), oblong-oval
shape and have lime-green colour. It has excellent sugar/acid blend and a
characteristically pleasant flavour. It is a heavy yielder, especially after the
age of 15 years. However, this is also biennial in bearing.

1.5.3 Chausa
This is one of the sweetest mangoes lacking somewhat in acidity. It is late
cultivar and matures towards the end of July or beginning of August. It starts
bearing good crops only after 15 to 20 years. The fruits are large-sized (3 to
4 per kg). Almost oblong in shape and bright yellow in colour. Its major
drawbacks, besides biennial bearing, are its high susceptibility to mango
malformation, and very vigorous growth habit.

1.5.4 Bombay Green

This is the earliest cultivar of northern India, maturing during the first half of 51
Sub Tropical Fruits June. The fruits are medium in size (4 to 6 per kg), ovate in shape and yellowish
green in colour. The taste is good and yield moderate. However, this is also
biennial in bearing and highly susceptible to mango malformation.

1.5.5 Fazli
This is a very late cultivar (matures late in August) with very large-sized
fruits (2 fruits per kg). The tree is very vigorous and a medium to heavy
cropper, with biennial bearing habit. The fruit quality is relatively poor and
its importance lies in its lateness to mature.

1.5.6 Zardalu
This is considered to be a matchless fruit of Bhagalpur (Bihar). It matures
towards the end of June. The fruits are medium in size (5 to 6 per kg), oblong-
oval in shape and have attractive apricot-yellow colour. The fruit quality is
good with a pleasant flavour. It is biennial in bearing.

1.5.7 Gulabkhas
The fruit is favored for its characteristic rose flavour and very sweet taste.
The fruits mature in June and are of medium size (5 to 6 per kg), Oblong-
oblique in shape. The fruits are amber yellow in colour, with reddish blush
towards the base and the sides. This is heavy yielder, but biennial in bearing.
1.5.8 Alphonso
This is one of the finest of Indian
mangoes and is rated to be the best by
many in home and abroad. However,
it is also biennial bearing. It is very
specific in its requirements and does
best only on the west coast of
Maharashtra (Ratnagiri), although it
is grown some extent in the south too.
The fruits are very attractive, large- Alphonso Mango
size (3 to 4 per kg) and oval in shape.
The fruits have an attractive pinkish blush towards the basal end. The taste is
superb, with excellent sugar/acid blend. The flavour is captivating. Besides
being a table cultivar, much in demand, it is also a favored of the processing
industry because it retains its characteristics flavour even during processing.
It is medium bearer.

1.5.9 Kesar
The fruits are medium to large-sized (3 to 4 per kg), oblong in shape with an
attractive light apricot-yellow colour. The taste is very good and sugar/acid
blend is excellent. It is moderate cropper but biennial in bearing. It is famous
cultivar of Gujarat.

1.5.10 Bangalora
This is one of the most widely cultivated, mid season cultivar of southern
52 India. It is heavy yielder and one of the few regular bearing cultivar of mango.
The fruits are large-sized (2 to 3 per kg) and very typical in shape, i.e. oblong Mango
(bottle necked towards the base) with a prominent curve and beak. The fruits
are attractive and have apricot yellow colour. The skin is thick and keeping
quality very good. The fruit quality is relatively inferior but is preferred by
the processing industry because of its dependable regular supply.
1.5.11 Neelum
This is yet another heavy yielding and
highly regular bearing commercial
cultivar of south and the fruit quality
is relatively more acceptable than
Bangalora. The fruits are medium in
size (4 to 6 per kg) and the shape is
ovate-oblique (roundish). The sinus is
somewhat prominent and the beak
distinct. The colour is orange-yellow
and the taste is somewhat good, with
an acidic blend. This cultivar has a
Neelum
wide adaptability and reaches the
northern market late in season, i.e. end of August to beginning of September.
Keeping quality is fairly good.

1.5.12 Swarnarekha
This is one of the few table cultivars of commerce which have highly coloured
fruits of attractive pinkish red. This appears early in the northern markets,
i.e. about the last week of April. The fruit size is medium (4 to 6 per kg) and
the shape is ovate-oblong. The flesh is somewhat fibrous and the taste is
good with an acidic blend. The bearing is moderate but biennial.
1.5.13 Banganpalli
This is yet another of the most widely
cultivated cultivars of the south which
is sent to the northern markets very
early in the season (i.e. towards the
end of April), even when it has not
attained proper maturity. It is good in
taste if tasted towards the later half of
May. This is also known as
“Baneshan” in the south and “Safeda” Banganpalli
in the north. The fruits are large size (2 to 3 per kg) and the colour is very
attractive golden yellow, with a very smooth skin. The shape is obliquely
oval. The bearing is moderate and fairly regular.

1.5.14 Mulgoa
This is an excellent late cultivar of the south but the bearing is rather light
and biennial. The fruit size is large (2 to 3 per kg) and shape roundish oblique,
with a sunken basal cavity. The taste is very sweet and flavour delightful.
Two strains red and white are reported.
53
 Mango
Neelgoa Neelum x Regular bearer, fruits
Pera Mulgoa skin to Neelum in shape
and colour but Mulgoa
in size, fibreless,
moderately juicy
Neeluddin Neelum x Medium tree, regular
Himayuddin bearer, fruit small to
medium, fibreless, juicy
with characteristic
flavour
RFRS, Swarnajehangir Chinnaswarna Prolific bearer, fruits
Ananthapuram rekha x medium, fibreless,
Jehangir juicy, sweet.
No. 2/2 Neelum x Regular bearer, good
Banganpalli quality fruits
No. 2/7 Chinnaswarna Dwarf, regular bearer,
rekha x good fruit quality
Neelum
RFRS, Paria, Neelashan Neelum x Dwarf, regular bearer,
Gujarat Baneshan fruits medium to large,
flavoured, good quality
Neeleshwari Neelum x Dwarf, regular
Dashehari bearer, good fruit
quality
Neelphanso Neelum x Dwarf, fruits medium,
Alphonso not attractive, TSS and
Vitamin C high
Periyakulam, PKM-1 Chinnaswarna Regular bearer, fruits
Tamil Nadu rekha x medium
Neelum
Sabour, Bihar Mahmud Bahar Bombai x Strudy and medium
Kalapadi tree, regular bearer, fruit
small, fibreless, good
quality.
Sundar Langra Langra x Semi-vigorous,
Sundar Pasand spreading tree, regular
and moderate bearing,
fruits large, shape like
Langra, moderately
flavored, fair keeping
quality

55
Sub Tropical Fruits
Alfazli Alphonso x Tall tree, regular bearer,
Fazli fruits large, fibreless,
free from malformation
and fruit fly
Prabha Sankar Bombai x Tree medium, regular
Kalapadi bearer, fruit resembles
Bombai, but mature 15
days later than Bombai
Sabori Gulabkhas x Tree semi-vigorous,
Bombai regular bearer, fruits
very sweet and fibreless
RFRS, Hybrid-1 Dashehari x High yield and good
Saharanpur Totapari fruit quality
(U.P.)
Hybrid-2 Dashehari x High yield and good
Totapari fruit quality
Hybrid-3 Dashehari x High yield and good
Fajarizafrani fruit quality
RFRS, Au Rumani Rumani x Regular and heavy
Sangareddy Mulgoa bearer, fruits round,
(A.P.) sweet
Manjira Rumani x Precocious, regular and
Neelum prolific bearer, fruits
medium, fibreless,
sweet
RFRS, Ratna Neelum x Moderately vigorous
Vengurla, Alphonso tree, regular and
Maharashtra precocious bearer,
attractive fruit shape,
size and colour, good
quality, medium size,
free from spongy tissue
Sindhu Ratna x High yielding, regular
Alphonso bearer, stone very thin
and non viable, deep
orange in colour, good
quality, free from
spongy tissue

1.7 PLANTING
After marking the places for the plants, pits of desired size are usually dug
out during summer months. To keep the plants in the middle of the pit, planting
56
board must be used, digging of pits is very essential. One metre deep and one
metre in diameter pits should be dug. Top 30 cm soil should be kept on one Mango
side and bottom 70 cm sub-soil should be kept on another side and the top
soil is used for refilling the pits when mixed farmyard manure.
The distance of the planting in mango depends upon a number of factors
such as locality, varieties to be grown and soil fertility. The square system is
most commonly followed in the mango. Seedling mangoes which attain a
much bigger size need more spacing than the grafted trees. Within grafted
varieties certain varieties like Langra and Chausa being more spreading,
require more space than Dashehari which has smaller size trees. For high
density plantation few of released hybrids eg. Amrapali and Mallika etc. are
planted which requires less spacing and accommodates more number of plants,
however, Dashehari cultivars is also used in high density plantation. The
increase in yield per hectare was 2.5 times more in high density plantation
than that of the low density orchards.
Distance between plants (m) Number of plants/10000 m2
2.5 x 2.5 m 1600
3.0 x 2.5 m 1333
9x9m 123
10 x 10 m 100
There are two planting seasons for mango i.e. spring (February - March) and
monsoon (August - September). The later season gives better results,
particularly in the dry and arid areas where intense summer heat of
May - June results in heavy mortalities among the spring plantings.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: a) Space is given below for the answers.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
1. Which hybrids were developed by IIHR, Bangalore ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. What are the fruit characteristics of Alphonso and Amrapali
varieties ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
3. What are the main products of mango fruits ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................ 57
Sub Tropical Fruits ............................................................................................................
4. Which species of mango bears non-edible and wild fruits ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

1.8 PROPAGATION
Almost all mango varieties are monoembryonic, except a few are
polyembryonic. Seedling trees carry enormous variations, therefore, vegetative
(Asexual) / propagation is a must. Sexual method of propagation only used
to develop new hybrids in mango. Various methods of propagation were
described one by one as below Asexual / Vegetative.

1.8.1 Inarching
It is still the most important commercial method of vegetative Asexual /
propagation. In this method, the scion remains attached to the parent tree till
the union is completed and the stock plant are raised in pots and placed on
raised platforms are brought in contact with the scion shoots. The diameter
of the rootstock and the scion should be the same. A slice of bark along with
a thin piece of wood about 4 cm long is removed from matching portions of
both the stock and scion. They are then brought together making sure that
their cambium layers make contact at-least at one side. These grafts are then
tied firmly with polythene strip. Both stock and scion plants are watered
regularly to hasten the union. The union is complete in about 2 to 3 months.
Then the scion is detached from the mother plant by giving a sharp cut. It is
done in the July - August.

1.8.2 Layering/Cutting/Budding
Mango can also be successfully propagated by layering (air layering (goottee),
pot layering and stooling), cuttings (easy to root when taken from seedlings
not from mature mango tree) and budding (patch, shield and forkert methods).
However, at present mango is not commonly propagated by these methods.

1.8.3 Veneer Grafting and Side Grafting

In this method scion-sticks are detached from the mother plant. The vertical
flap of the rootstock bark is completely removed in veneer grafting, but in
case of side grafting this flap is retained and tied over the scion. In the veneer
grafting, the scion is sliced away one side in a sloping manner. The length of
operation is about 5 to 6 cm or so. In side grafting, the lower most portion is
sliced on both sides resembling to a wedge, it is properly fitted and tied with
polythene strip. A very high success and further growth of grafts are achieved
when scion shoots are defoliated at least 10 days before veneer grafting.

1.8.4 Stone Grafting and Epicotyl Grafting

58
It is an efficient, economic and rapid technique for mango propagation. The
method is being adopted on commercial scale. Mango stones are grown in Mango
polythene bags or pots containing light planting material. Very young seedlings
of 10-12 days old are grafted by beheading them at 5 cm above the stone and
placing the splice or wedge shaped defoliated scion in the vertical split. The
graft is tied with polythene strip properly. The graft is kept under partial
shade. They are watered regularly. One year old grafts are ready for planting.
This technique is successfully adapted from August to September under sub
tropical climatic conditions. Under moist tropical climate it is done before
the start of heavy monsoon.

1.8.5 Preparation of Scion and Rootstock

Mother trees from where the scion is
to be taken should be healthy vigorous
and have sufficient record of good
bearing. Before the actual grafting is
done, the scion should be prepared
carefully. For this, the healthy shoots
of the last mature flush having plump
terminal buds are selected. These
shoots are defoliated 7 to 10 days
before they are detached from the
mother tree for grafting. For raising
the rootstocks the stones are extracted
from the full ripe fruits. As the mango
seeds (stones) loose their viability in
a short period, so they are sown Scion preparation
quickly. They are sown in flat beds which are mixed with compost or farmyard
manure. One year old seedlings are used for grafting.

1.9 NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS

Mango grows well even in poor soils because of its deep root system.
Nutritional requirements of the mango falls two categories viz. non-bearing
stage and bearing stage which may also varies with the type of soil and age of
the tree.

1.9.1 Non-bearing Trees

This stage extends from the planting of the tree in the orchard until it begins
to yield fruits. The young trees need to be given liberal doses of nitrogen,
calcium, phosphorus, and potassium. During this period, nitrogen is
particularly needed in rather heavy quantities to support healthy and fast
growth. These needs can be met roughly if N, P and K are applied at the rate
of 50-100 g, 40-80 g and 100-200 g each year to plant with 40 to 80 per cent
derived from organic source.

1.9.2 Bearing Trees

To maintain optimum vegetative growth from year to year and to ensure
regular cropping with superior quality fruit proper manuring for nutritional
requirement at this stage is required. For sufficient fruit bud differentiation 59
Sub Tropical Fruits and for getting proper flowering every year, proper nutrition should be
provided to the bearing trees. Manuring of mango is therefore a quite complex
problem. Following fertilizer schedule is recommended for mango trees.
Table 3: Fertilizer schedule for mango trees.

Tree age FYM (kg) Nutrients (g)

(years) Nitrogen Phosphorous Potassium

1–3 5 – 20 50 – 100 40 – 80 100 – 200

4–6 25 – 50 100 – 200 80 – 100 200 – 400

7–9 60 – 90 200 – 250 120 – 160 400 – 600

10 & above 100 250 160 600

The above doses are for the “Off” year of crop. During the “On” year apply
one additional kg of CAN in June. Apply the whole quantity of farmyard
manure and phosphatic fertilizers in December. Apply all nitrogen and potash
in February. During “On” year, split the nitrogen dose into two parts, first
part is given at the time of flowering and the remaining half in the month of
June.

1.10 CULTURAL PRACTICES

Different cultural operation in mango has been described below one by one:

1.10.1 Training and Pruning

The training of mango plants in the initial stages is very essential to give
them proper shape. At least 75 cm of the main stem should be kept free from
branching and the first leader of main branch should be allowed after that.
During first four years of orchard life, the mango plants need not to be given
any pruning except the removal of dead or diseased branches. After the trees
are well grown up, the criss-crossed or too close branches underneath the
main limbs which remain under perpetual shade should be removed.
1.10.2 Top Working
The old unproductive and inferior
seedling trees which are found in large
number everywhere can be
rejuvenated and improved by the
process of top working. Conversion
of inferior trees into superior varieties
of good performance, not only
improves orchard performance but
increase the growth of mango trees in
the shortest time.

Crop
60
1.10.3 Interculture Mango

Interculture of mango orchards is necessary not only to remove the weeds

which compete for water and nutrients but also to ensure aeration. It is so
essential for the proper development of roots and shoots. Interculture may
help in reducing the insect-pest population by killing them physically.
Frequency and the time of intercultural operations will vary with the age of
the orchard. Hoeing should be done before onset of rains, after the rainy
season and in the first week of December to check run off losses and facilitate
maximum intake of water into the soil. It will also suppress the weed growth
and to check the population of mango mealy bug, respectively.

1.10.4 Irrigation
Irrigation should be given depending upon the type of the soil, climatic
condition, especially rainfall, and its distribution and age of the trees. Irrigation
requirements of young and non-bearing trees are different from those of the
bearing trees. The newly planted young mango trees were irrigated twice a
week in hot weather for its rapid growth. The young non-bearing trees must
be irrigated at regular intervals.
During the period of two or three months preceding flowering season, profuse
irrigation is advisable for bearing trees. A mango tree should receive irrigation
according to its needs which in turn would depend upon several factors such
as soil structure, climatic conditions, variety, rootstock, and age of the tree.

1.10.5 Intercropping
Intercropping should always be done in the initially few years of non-bearing
period in between the vacant land of mango orchards. The cultivation of
harmless intercrops like fodders, farm crops, vegetables and pulses preferably
of leguminous type are beneficial. Instead of intercropping, temporary quick
growing fruit trees can be grown as fillers which are removed when the mango
trees assume big size. Papaya, peach, plum, phalsa are grown as fillers.

1.11 INSECT-PESTS AND DISEASES

1.11.1 Insect-pests
The list of pests attacking mango is long which make serious attacks during
one season or the other. A description of major insect-pests along with their
control is given below:
1.11.1.1 Mango Hopper (Amritodus atkinsoni)
This is the most damaging insect during the flowering season. Until February,
the hoppers remain in hiding under the bark crevices and become active during
flowering period. The nymphs and adults both are damaging, they suck the
sap from tender shoots and panicles. The panicles wither away and the fruit
set is adversely affected. The young fruits and dried inflorescence fall to the
ground as the summer winds blow. Its incidence is very high in overcrowded
and neglected orchards.
61
Sub Tropical Fruits The insect can be controlled by spraying the trees at the time of panicle
emergence and again at the fruit set stage with Carbaryl (0.15 %) or Malathion
50 EC (0.15 %) or 350 ml of Thiodan in 250 lt. of water.
1.11.1.2 Mango mealy bug (Drosicha mangiferae)
This pest does a lot of damage during the flowering and fruiting stage. The
female lays eggs during May under soil clods, around the tree trunk, upto a
depth of 5-15 cm. The nymphs emerge in December-January and starts
climbing up the tree where they congregate together and suck juice from
young shoots, panicles and flower pedicels. The affected parts dry up and
yield is reduced substantially.
Once the pest manages to reach the top of the plant, its control becomes
rather difficult. Damage from the mealy bugs can be avoided if the eggs are
destroyed by digging around the trunk during hot months. Stick bands (grease
and coal tar in the ratio bands of 1:2, rosin and castor oil in the ratio 4:5) or
slippery bands of alkathene, 30 to 45 cm wide should be applied around the
tree trunk about 30-45 cm above the ground level during December. However,
before applying these bands, care should be taken to plaster all the bark
crevices with mud so that the nymphs may not climb up from underneath
such bands. Alkathane bands need to be wiped clean at least once a week and
the nymphs on the lower edges may be collected and destroyed in kerosene
oil or in any strong insecticide. In the case of nymphs have climbed up the
tree, these should be controlled at the earliest by spraying carbaryl (0.2 %).
1.11.1.3 Mango stone weevil (Cryptorhynchus mangiferae)
This is most prevalent in the southern parts of the country and is reported to
be specific to sweet cultivar of mango. Grub of this insect damage both the
pulp and the cotyledons of the stone. The eggs are laid in partly developed
fruits. The grubs travel through the pulp and enter the seeds where they pupate
and the adults come out piercing through the stone and the pulp.
General cleanliness in the orchard and destroying the adults in the bark crevices
and holes, during August has been reported to be helpful. Infested bark should
be washed with kerosene emulsion.
1.11.1.4 Fruit fly (Dacus dorsalis)
This a serious pest as the affected
fruits becomes unfit for consumption
through the feeding of the maggots in
the flesh. The fly lays its eggs in
clusters of 150-200 under the skin of
the fruit juice before ripening. The
affected fruits begin to rot and drop
down.
The control lies in prompt collection
and destruction of the damaged fruits Fruit Fly
in hot water or by burying them deep
in the soil. Poisoned baits placed in wide mouthed containers @ 10 per hectare
62 are helpful in checking the incidence of fruit fly. The formulations containing
100 ml emulsion of Methyl euginol 0.1 per cent and Malathion 0.1 per cent Mango
are also effective.
1.11.1.5 Stem Borer
This pest tunnels through the main trunk or its branches, weakens the plant
and in extreme cases the plant may die. Its presence can be identified by dry
hard balls of excreta, emerging from the tunneled portion.
The control lies in cleaning the tunnels with a hard wire, pouring kerosene
oil, petrol or formalin and subsequently, closing the entrance of the tunnel
with mud after plugging it with cotton wool soaked in any of the above
substances.
1.11.1.6 Shoot Borer
The damage is caused by caterpillars which enter the young shoots from the
terminal end and bore down to a depth of 8-10 cm. The affected shoots wilt
and dry up.
It can be controlled by 1 or 2 sprays of Carbaryl (0.2 %) during the emergence
period of vegetative flush.
Other insect-pest which causes damage to mango crop is red ants, bark-eating
caterpillar, leaf-cutting weevil, shoot-gall maker and leaf-gall maker.

1.11.2 Diseases
Major diseases which can cause damage to mango are powdery mildew and
anthracnose. Other diseases which cause damage are sooty mould, pink
disease, stem end rot and bacterial spot in certain areas.
1.11.2.1 Powdery Mildew (Oidium mangiferae)
This fungal disease is widely prevalent in all mango growing regions and can
even destroy the crop completely. Its incidence is favoured by humidity
accompanied by cloudy weather and low night temperatures during the period
between panicle development and fruit set. It is characterized by the
appearance of grayish white powdery bloom on the flower buds and fruitlets.
Quite often the entire panicle may be affected. Such panicles get dried and
turn black, resulting in total failure of the crop. In serious cases, even young
leaves and shoots may be affected.
The disease can be kept under control by spraying 0.1 per cent karathane or
0.25 per cent wettable sulphur once before flowering, again during flowering
and then after fruit set. If need be arises one more spray should be given after
10-15 days. The timing of the first spray is very important which must be
given as soon as the growers observe the very young inflorescence stalks
emergence out from the flowering buds. Quantity of spray suspension will
depend upon the age and size of the tree.
1.11.2.2 Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides)
This fungal disease is also of wide occurrence, more especially in humid and
high rainfall areas. The leaves, shoots, inflorescence and the fruits are all
63
Sub Tropical Fruits affected by it. The characteristics symptoms are the appearance of black
necrotic areas on the affected parts. The affected young shoots finally show
die back symptoms. The diseased young fruitlets drop down and if the fungus
attacks the fruits at maturity the disease is enhanced by the storage.
As the fungus survives on the dead or dried twigs, these should be pruned
and burnt at the earliest. The disease can also be controlled by spraying
Bordeaux mixture (3:3:50), Blitox (0.3 %) or Bavistin (0.1 %) thrice a year
i.e. February, April and September.
1.11.2.3 Bacterial Canker
The earliest symptoms of this disease, on the leaves and the fruits are the
appearance of small dark green water soaked spots which finally assume the
shape of raised black spots. These areas on the fruits develop longitudinal
cracks and gum starts oozing out from the splits. Seriously affected fruits
drop down and the yield may adversely be affected. Affected fruits are
unattractive and unmarketable.
This disease is widely prevalent and the infection increases with recurrent
rainy weather. However, all the cultivars are not affected equally. In dry
seasons, the incidence is not noticed. Although no satisfactory control measure
is available as yet, Bordeaux mixture (4:4:50) may be applied at fortnightly
interval from the first appearance of the diseases on the leaves.

1.12 PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDER

1.12.1 Alternate Bearing
It refers to heavy fruiting in one year “On year” followed by less or no fruiting
in the following year “Off year”. It is a very serious and old problem in
mango especially in the North Indian varieties. Various causes like varietal
differences, growth habit, crop load, cultural practices, sex-ratio, insects-
pests and diseases etc. have been attributed to the occurrence of biennial
bearing in mango. Besides, there endogenous level of growth hormones,
reserve metabolites and nutrient status has also been considered responsibility
for the bienniality in mango. Biennial bearing is a characteristic of a variety
and some workers emphasized that this is due to the genomic constitution of
the particular variety. Most of the commercial varieties of North India eg.
Dashehari, Langra and Chausa are prone to biennial bearing but varieties of
South India like Totapari, Neelum and Bangalora are regular bearer.
Application of deblossoming, pruning, better cultural practices and exogenous
plant regulators treatments have shown good results in the recent years. A
highly regular bearing variety “Amrapali” has been evolved by crossing
“Dashehari x Neelum” by the Scientists at IARI, New Delhi. The concentration
of ethephon 200 ppm coupled with 0.1 per cent urea was found effective in
inducing regular flowering over the year.

1.12.2 Mango Malformation

You might have observed a bunchy look at the tips of the branches of mango.
64 These are called mango malformation. It is a disorder. This disorder was first
observed in 1891 in Bihar, India. It is also prevalent in other mango producing Mango
countries like Pakistan and Egypt. It affects both the vegetative and floral
parts of a mango tree. Malformed vegetative shoots, assume the appearance
of bunchy top. Of these two types, floral malformation causes heaviest losses.
The malformed panicles mostly produce sterile male flowers and hence no
fruit set on these panicles. The disorder is wide spread in the mango orchards
of northern and western India. It is not observed in the Southern India. Varieties
like “Bahaduran”, “Alib” and “Illaichi” are resistant to mango malformation.
Up till now, exact causal agents of this disorder are unknown. This disorder
is caused perhaps due to environmental factors, insects (mites), viruses,
fungus, mangiferin, malformins or physiological (hormonal imbalances).
Several management measures recommended by various workers include
use of anti-malformins (glutathione and ascorbic acid), deblossiming or spray
of naphthalene acetic acid. Spray of NAA @ 200 ppm at the time of fruit bud
differentiation (October – November in Northern India) is found beneficial.
Pruning of the malformed panicle and shoots is only other control measure.

1.12.3 Black Tip

It is purely a non pathogenic physiological disorder. There is development of
a small etiolated area at the distal end of the fruit, which gradually spreads
and turns nearly black and covers the tips completely. Black tipped fruits
fetch very low price in the market. This disorder is quite common if the
fruiting orchards fall in the direction of wind from the brick kiln side.
This disorder can be avoided by allowing brick kilns only at a distance of at
least 1.6 km in the east and west and 0.8 km in the north and south of the
orchard taking into consideration the usual wind direction during the fruiting
season. Spray of sodium hydroxide and washing soda solution which does
not contain boron is beneficial in controlling brick tip.

1.12.4 Spongy tissue

This is a serious disorder affecting mango production, particularly of Alphonso
variety, which is a prized variety for export. This disorder accounts for about
30 per cent loss in Alphonso production annually. In this disorder a non-
edible, sour, yellowish and sponge like patch with or without air pocket
develop in the mesocarp of the fruit during ripening. Its intensity varies from
a small patch to the whole fruit pulp. This malady has become more
complicated since the affected fruit presents healthy external appearance.
Affected tissue is visible only when the ripe fruit is cut and the affected fruit
have a bad odour and become unpalatable. The intensity of disorder varies
with variety, size of fruit, soil moisture, geographical location, tree aspect,
rootstock and time of harvest. The incidence is more in large size fruit and
when the harvesting is delayed.
Mulching, cover cropping and fruit harvesting at 3/4th size are recommended
practices to escape from this problem.

1.13 HARVESTING
As mango is highly perishable fruit. Its harvesting at proper stage of maturity 65
Sub Tropical Fruits is of fundamental importance. The criteria for judging mango maturity are
slight yellow colour development on the shoulders, when one or two ripe
fruits fall from the plant naturally (tapka) and when the specific gravity of
fruits ranges between 1.01 and 1.02. The fruits are usually harvested when
slightly yellow in colour, fully mature but unripe. The fruits are not harvested
by shaking the branches which results in internal breakdown of the flesh on
falling and spoils the appearance also. A bamboo hand tool called mango
picker is always used for harvesting of mango.
The grafted plants which are relatively short lived and less vigorous, bear
fruits of highly uniform size and good quality. These start bearing at the age
of 5 years (15-20 fruits) and the optimum crop starts from the 10th year when
each year yields about 400 to 600 fruits per plant. During an “On year”, a
well looked after mango tree of 20 to 40 years bears a crop of about 1000 to
3000 fruits per plant. Seedling trees usually take about eight years to come
into bearing, but their productive life is much longer.

1.14 STORAGE
The mango is climacteric fruit and to avoid the glut in the market, proper
storage is absolutely essential. The processing units cannot utilize the entire
produce at a time and proper storage conditions become vital. Storage at
optimum low temperature has effective in increasing storage life. The fruits
treated with 4 per cent wax emulsion can be kept at room temperature for 12
days and 35 days in cold storage (13°C ± 1 and 85-90 % humidity) after
packing in perforated polythene bags.

1.15 PACKAGING AND TRANSPORTATION

The harvested fruits should first be graded according to size and appearance.
Proper packaging is an essential pre-requisite for maintaining good appearance
and quality of the produce on reaching the marketing centre. The fruits are
packed in bamboo baskets of 50 to 100 fruits capacity, sometimes straw is
utilized as a cushioning material to avoid bruising injury to the fruits.
For local markets the fruits are packed in simple manner whereas, for distant
markets the fully mature but unripe fruits are packed in CFB boxes of 5-10
kg filling capacity of proper size. For this purpose individual fruits are wrapped
in tissue paper and cushioning is provided by paper shavings.

1.16 PROCESSING
Raw mango fruits are utilized for products like chutney, pickles, amchoor,
green mango beverage, etc. whereas, the ripe ones are used in making pulp,
juice, nectar, squash, leather, slices, etc.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note: a) Space is given below for the answers.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
66
 1. Which is the commercial method of propagation of mango ? Mango

............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. What are the maturity indices of mango ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
3. What are the main causes of mango malformation ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
4. Write a short note on Mango hopper and Spongy tissue.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

1.17 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have studied about the history, botany, nutritive value, area
and production, soil, climatic and nutritional requirements, planting and
propagation methods, cultural practices, pests, diseases and physiological
disorders, harvesting, storing, packaging and transportation of mango fruits.
You have also study about the different varieties of mango and the commercial
varieties of one region do not do so well when grown in other areas. Mango
has 1st Position in production and area than other fruit crops and it has titled
“King of Fruits”. You have also study the popular products of mango such as
Squashes, juices, nectars, syrup, jam, jellies, canned mango, slices and pulp
from mango fruits under this unit.

1.18 KEY WORDS

Physiological disorder : Disorder is due to abnormal environmental
conditions, improper nutrition and without
involvement of primary parasite.
Spongy tissue : Development of bad odour with sponge like
mesocarpic tissue having air pocket due to
inactivation of hydrolytic enzyme by
convective heat.

67
Sub Tropical Fruits Climateric fruit : Fruits in which the respiration rate is higher at
maturity and peaks suddenly after harvest.
Inflorescence : The branch system of the floral region bearing
the group of flowers i.e. arrangement of
flowers on the stalk.

1.19 FURTHER REFERENCES

1. Singh, L.B. (1960). The Mango - Botany, Cultivation and Utilization,
Leonard Hill, London.
2. Singh, R.N. (1978). Mango, ICAR, New Delhi.
3. Singh, S., Krishnamurthy, S. and Katyal, S.L. (1967). Fruit Culture in
India, ICAR, New Delhi.

1.20 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. The hybrids developed by the IIHR, Bangalore are “Arka Aruna”, “Arka
Anmol”, “Arka Neelkiran” and “Arka Puneet”.
2. The raw fruits are used for the preparation of chutneys and pickles, whereas
the ripe fruits are used in making delicious squash, juice, nectar, syrup,
jam and jelly. Canned mango slices, and pulp are the other popular
products.
3. The species which bears wild and non-edible fruits are M. sylvatica and
M. coloneura.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Inarching and Veneer grafting are the commercial methods of propagating
a mango.
2. Development of slight colour on the shoulders, naturally fallen of one or
two ripe fruits (tapka) and when the specific gravity of fruits ranges
between 1.01 and 1.02 are the few maturity indices for the mango
harvesting.
3. The main cause of mango malformation is environmental factors, insects
(mites), viruses, fungus, mangiferin, malformins or physiological
(hormonal imbalances).
4. Mango hopper is the most damaging insect which attacks during the
flowering season. The nymphs and adults suck the sap from tender shoots
and panicles. The panicles wither away and the fruit set is adversely
affected. The young fruits and dried inflorescence fall to the ground as
the summer winds blow. More prevalent in overcrowded and neglected
orchards. It can be controlled by spraying the trees at the time of panicle
68
emergence and again at the fruit set stage with Carbaryl (0.15 %) or Mango
Malathion 50 EC (0.15 %) or 350 ml of Thiodan in 250 litre of water.
Spongy tissue affects particularly Alphonso variety, which is a prized
variety for export whose loss ranges upto 30 per cent. A non-edible, sour,
yellowish and sponge like patch with or without air pocket develop in
the mesocarp of the fruit during ripening. Its intensity varies from a small
patch to the whole fruit pulp, however sometimes the affected fruit presents
healthy external appearance. Affected tissue is visible only when the ripe
fruit is cut and the affected fruit have a bad odour and become unpalatable.
The intensity of disorder varies with variety, size of fruit, soil moisture,
geographical location, tree aspect, rootstock and time of harvest. The
incidence is more in large size fruit and when the harvesting is delayed.
Mulching, with polythene or dry grass etc. cover cropping and fruit
harvesting at 3/4th size are recommended practices to escape from this
problem.

69
 Sub Tropical Fruits
UNIT 2 BANANA (MUSA ACUMINATA & M.
BALBISIANA)
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Area and Production
2.3 Soil
2.4 Climate
2.5 Commercial Varieties
2.5.1 Poovan
2.5.2 Dwarf Canvedish
2.5.3 Harichal
2.5.4 Kanchkela
2.5.5 Martaman
2.5.6 Lalkela
2.5.7 Nendran
2.5.8 Gros Michel
2.5.9 Safed Velchi
2.5.10 Hill Banana
2.5.11 Giant Governer
2.5.12 Co1. Banana
2.6 Planting
2.7 Propagation
2.8 Nutritional Requirement
2.9 Cultural Practices
2.9.1 Irrigation
2.9.2 Inter-cropping
2.9.3 De-suckering
2.9.4 Weed Control
2.9.5 Earthing Up
2.9.6 Trashing, Propping, Wrapping and Mattocking
2.10 Insect-Pest and Diseases
2.10.1 Insect-pest
2.10.1.1 Banana stem borer
2.10.1.2 Banana aphid
2.10.1.3 Thrips
2.10.1.4 Moth
2.10.1.5 Banana beetle

70 2.10.1.6 Nematodes

•
 2.10.2 Diseases Banana
2.10.2.1 Panama Disease or Banana Wilt
2.10.2.2 Leaf spot or Sigatoka Disease
2.10.2.3 Bacterial Wilt
2.10.2.4 Bunchy Top
2.10.2.5 Banana Mosaic
2.11 Harvesting
2.12 Storage
2.13 Packaging and Transportation
2.14 Let Us Sum Up
2.15 Key Words
2.16 Further References
2.17 Answers To Check Your Progress Exercises

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be in a position to:
• explain the botany and uses of banana,
• assess status of area and production of banana in the world and country,
• describe the soil, climatic and nutritional requirement,
• identify the different varieties by their names and characteristics,
• describe the planting and propagation methods and other cultural practices,
• describe various pests-diseases and physiological disorders, and
• explain how and when the harvesting, storing, packaging and
transportation to be done.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Banana is an important fruit crop for
majority of world population,
especially in the tropics. It is one of
the oldest fruits and second largest
growing fruit crop in the world. It is
also known as the “Adam’s Fig” and
“Apple of Paradise”. The edible
banana is native to old world
especially South East Asia. The
banana belongs to the family
Musacae. There are only two genera
viz. Ensete and Musa with about 50
species in the family. Ensete is an old
declining genus and has about 6-7
71
Sub Tropical Fruits species, Musa genus have 40 species of perennial, stooling or rhizomatous
herbs are found in South Eastern Asia and Pacific. The genus Musa is divided
into five sections. Out of these Enmusa sections the edible banana was related
to two wild species viz. Musa acuminata and M. balbisiana.
Banana is a good source of vitamin A
and a fair source of vitamin C and B2.
Its fruits are rich source of minerals
like magnesium, sodium, potassium
and phosphorous and fair source of
calcium and iron. Ripe fruits are
delicious and are used for table
purpose. The immature fruits are used
for vegetable. Many products are
made from banana such as banana
chips, soft drink, flour and jam. The
end of inflorescence technically known as pendant is cooked as a vegetable
in Bengal. Banana ash is rich in alkaline salts and therefore can check acidity
in stomach, heart burn and colic. Ripe fruits taken with Tamarind and salt are
said to control dysentery.

2.2 AREA AND PRODUCTION

Banana is widely grown in countries like Mexico, Philippines, Uganda,
Thailand, Kenya, Brazil, Eucador, Egypt, Ghana etc. Total area under banana
in India is 883.77 thousand ha and production is 30807.50 thousand mt.
Banana is the second largest fruit after mango accounting for 36.5 per cent of
total fruit production from 11.0 per cent of area. Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra,
Gujarat, Orissa, Karnataka, Kerala, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Assam,
Bihar and Madhya Pradesh are major banana growing states. Productivity is
highest in Andhra Pardesh and lowest in Kerala.
Table 1 : Statewise area, production and productivity in
total of banana during 2017-18.

Sl. State Area Production Productivity

No. (000 ha.) (000 mt.) ha/mt
1 Tamil Nadu 82.63 3205.04 38.79
2 Maharashtra 80.88 4209.27 52.05
3 Gujarat 68.15 4472.32 65.63
4 Andhra Pradesh 88.96 5003.07 56.24
5 Karnataka 110.55 2328.90 21.07
6 Bihar 31.07 1396.39 44.94
7 West Bengal 49.30 1200.00 24.34
8 Madhya Pradesh 26.38 913.27 69.54
9 Assam 53.08 1834.03 17.20
10 Kerala 109.26 1119.16 10.24
11 Utter Pradesh 67.38 3172.33 45.73
12 Others 114.13 1953.72 17.12
Total 883.77 30807.50 462.89

72
 Banana
2.3 SOIL
Banana can be grown in almost all types of soils provided adequate soil
moisture is available. Deep, well drained, friable loamy soil with adequate
organic matter is ideal for its cultivation. Sandy soil of the coastal areas of
Maharashtra, black cotton soils of plains, black and lighter soils of East
Khandesh, alluvial to slightly open loamy soil of Tamil Nadu and Andhra
Pradesh are also suitable for banana cultivation. This fruit has a restricted
root zone. Therefore, depth and drainage are the two most important factors
in selecting the soil for banana. The minimum depth necessary is about a
metre. Alkaline soils are also preferable in banana cultivation to avoid the
wilt disease, which is more severe in acidic soils.

2.4 CLIMATE
The banana is basically a plant of the humid tropics, but is adapted to a wide
range of climatic conditions ranging from wet tropical to dry subtropical. It
can be grown from sea level to an altitude of 1200 metre. It grows well to a
temperature range between 10oC to 40oC. Unfavourable weather conditions
leads to the breakage or uprooting of pseudo stem by storm, reduction in
plant growth and malformation of bunches due to low temperature etc. Frost
is the limiting factor for successful cultivation of banana. In cooler climate
the crop requires longer time to mature. Hot winds blowing in high speed
during the summer months, shed and desiccate the leaves. On an average
100 mm rainfall per month appears to be satisfactory for growth of banana.
Stagnation of water is injurious and may cause diseases like Panama wilt.

2.5 COMMERCIAL VARIETIES

There are about 300 recorded cultivars of banana. The important cultivars
are described below:

2.5.1 Poovan
Musa (AAB) Group. Syn. Poovan
(Tamil Nadu), Champa (West Bengal),
Lal Velchi (Maharashtra), Karpura
Chakrakeli (Andhra Pradesh),
Palayangodan (Kerala), Kadali (Tamil
Nadu), Dora Vazhai (Nilgiris).
It is commercially grown in West
Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu
and Kerala. The plant is tall, hardy and
grows vigorously under the ratooning
system of cultivation. The fruit is small. Skin is yellow and thin, flesh firm,
sweet with a pleasant sourish taste. There is rose pink colouration of the
other side of the mid rib when leaves are young. It has a good keeping quality.
It is resistant to Panama wilt and fairly resistant to bunchy top disease. The
average bunch weight is about 15 kg and has 200-225 fruits.
73
Sub Tropical Fruits 2.5.2 Dwarf Canvedish
Musa (AAA) Group. Syn. Basrai, Loton (Maharashtra), Kabuli (West Bengal),
Vaman Keli, Bhusaval (Andhra Pradesh), Pacha Vazhai, Mauritius,
Kuzhivazhai (Tamil Nadu), Basrai Dwarf (Gujarat). This variety is grown
commercially in Maharashtra.
The plant of this variety is dwarf with only 1.5-2.0 m in height. The fruits are
large and curved. The skin is thick and greenish. The flesh is soft and sweet.
The variety is susceptible to cold. Fruits ripened at high temperature, often
develop black spots on it, hence name Chittidar. It a high yielding variety but
keeping quality is poor. A bunch on an average weighs about 20 kg. The fruit
tends to drop off from the bunch when ripe. It does not bear fertile male
flowers. The variety is susceptible to bunchy top and leaf spot but resistant to
Panama wilt.

2.5.3 Harichal
Musa (AAA) Group Syn. Bombay Green (Maharashtra) Peddapachaarti
(Andhra Pradesh), Robusta (Tamil Nadu).
It is an important variety commercially grown in Maharashtra. It is a semi-
tall sport of Dwarf Cavendish. It is similar to Basrai except that the fruit is
more green and straight, the bunch is more symmetrical and the plant taller.
Fruit large, skin thick, greenish to dull yellow, sweet and delicious. The fruits
have better keeping quality than that of Dwarf Cavendish. It prefers a moist
coastal climate. Average bunch weight is about 20 kg.

2.5.4 Kanchkela
Musa (ABB) Group. Syn. Khasdia (Gujarat), Monthan (Tamil Nadu), Bontha
(Andhra Pradesh), Maduranga Bale, Aunda Bale, Mangakai (Karnataka),
Khasdi, Bankel (Maharashtra), Bainsa (Bihar), Ponthan (Kerala), Batisa
(Odisha), Bluggoe (Trinidad), Pisang Nanka (Malaysia).
This is the most important commercial culinary banana cultivar of India. The
plant is tall, robust, light green leaves. The plant is hardy and somewhat
drought tolerant. The skin is thick. The fruits having prominent three ridges.
It can withstand cold better. Keeping quality is good. Average bunch weight
is approximately 15 kg.

2.5.5 Martaman
Musa (ABB) Group. Syn. Rasthali (Tamil Nadu), Mutheli (Maharashtra),
Malbhog (Bihar), Amruthapani (Andhra Pradesh), Rasabale (Karnataka),
Sonkel (Kerala), Silkfig (Trinidad).
It is the most liked table variety of West Bengal. The plant is tall, yellowish-
green stem, the brownish blotches, reddish margins of the petiole and leaf
sheath. The average bunch weight is about 12 kg. Fruits are medium-sized
and similar to that of Poovan in appearance. It is susceptible to Panama disease
and ripe fruit drop off from the bunch. The plant has better root system and
can resist wind better than other varieties.
74
2.5.6 Lalkela Banana

Musa (AAA) Group. Syn. Chenkadali, Sevazhi (Tamil Nadu), Anupan (Bihar),
Rathambala (Sri Lanka), Red banana (Trinidad).
This variety is grown throughout the world. This is the most robust of the
bananas grown in India. The height of the plant goes up to 4-5 metres. The
colour of the Pseudostem, petiole, midrib and fruit is purplish red. The fruit
is of good size and has a characteristic aroma. The skin is thick, pulp is
saffron coloured, firm, fairly moist and sweet. The variety has a free suckering
habit.

2.5.7 Nendran
Musa (AAB) Group Syn. Nendran, Ethakai (Kerala), Rajeli (Maharashtra),
Kochikehal (Sri Lanka) Plantain (Trinidad).
It is cultivated on commercial scale in Kerala. It has habit of producing more
suckers. The pseudostem has a distinct shade of pink of colouration. The
fruit is relatively longer and thicker than most other bananas. The bunch is
not compact and average weight is 15 kg. Keeping quality is good. The variety
is suitable for the preparation of banana flour, banana chips and drying as fig.

2.5.8 Gros Michel

Musa (AAA) Group. Syn. Anamalu (Sri Lanka), Blue Field (Hawaii).
The variety was introduced in South India from Trinidad. It is the best dessert
variety and excells other varieties in length of bunch, number of fruits, flavour,
attractive skin colour and resistant to bruising. It is susceptible to wilt disease.

2.5.9 Safed Velchi

Musa (AB) Group. Syn. Sonery (Maharashtra), Ney Poovan (Tamil Nadu),
Nhali Poovan (Kerala), Kadali (Malabar), Nitka Bale, Deva Bale (Karnataka).
The variety is popular in Kerala and Maharashtra and mostly grown as
intercrop in coconut and arecanut garden. The plant is tall, stem is slender.
Pseudostem is yellowish having reddish petiole margin. The fruits are small,
firm fleshed and sweet. Keeping quality is very good. The average bunch
weight is about 10-12 kg.

2.5.10 Hill Banana

Musa (AAB) Group. Virupakshi Syn. Mala Vazhai.
The banana is a speciality of Tamil Nadu. These are perennial bananas of
high quality. Sirumalai and Virupakshi are the two main types. Fruits of
Sirumalai have better taste. The average bunch weight is about 12 kg. The
duration of the variety is about 14 months.

2.5.11 Giant Governer

Musa (AAA) Group. It is popular in West Bengal. The plant is medium dwarf.
The fruits are large, greenish to dull yellow in colour. The pulp is firm and
75
Sub Tropical Fruits taste is sweet. It produces bunch weighing 15-18 kg. The variety is susceptible
to leaf spot disease (Sigatoka) but resistant to wilt.

2.5.12 Co1. Banana

It is a hybrid developed at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University. Coimbatore.
It is a multi-crosses made among ‘Ladan’ as female parent and Musa
balbisiana and ‘Kadali’ as a male parents. It takes about 14 month duration.
The average bunch weight is 10 kg.

2.6 PLANTING
The land should be deeply ploughed, harrowed and leveled properly. Pits of
60 x 60 x 60 cm are dug sufficiently ahead at points fixed for planting. The
pits are filled with a mixture of top soil and farmyard manure or compost.
The plant population per unit area depends on cultivar, topography, soil
fertility, de-suckering, various aspects of management, duration of plantation
etc. in general tall cultivars are given wider spacing than the dwarf ones.
High density planting may be practiced in mono crop culture, while wider
spacing is advocated for the ratoon crop. The suckers detached from the mother
plants are planted in the centre of the pit and pressed well around the base.
Immediately after planting, light irrigation should be given.
Planting time depends mainly on the climatic conditions and availability of
water. Banana can be planted throughout the year except in severe winter
and during heavy rains when the soil is very wet. In the areas of heavy or
continuous rains, planting of banana should be done after Monsoon i.e. in
September - October. In the areas where the rains are not so heavy, planting
should be done during June - July. In the areas where assured irrigation is
available, planting can be successfully done in February - March. The planting
in the hill slopes of South India is done during February - March and on the
banks of the Cauvery river in April.
A spacing of 2.7 m x 3.0 m (row x plant) for tall cultivar and 1.8 m x 1.8 m
(row x plant) for dwarf cultivars were found most suitable. For dwarf varieties,
the distance of 1.2 m x 1.2 m and 1.8 m x 1.8 m can also be kept profitably.
On the other hand, for tall and semi-tall varieties, the distance of 2.4 m x 1.8
m, 2.4 m x 2.4 m and 2.5m x 2.5 m were also found equally suitable.

2.7 PROPAGATION
Banana is commonly propagated by suckers. When plants are multiplied
through suckers, two types of suckers namely sword suckers and water suckers
are used. Sword suckers have a well developed base with narrow sword shaped
leaf blades at the early stages. The water suckers are having broad leaves and
they don’t produce a healthy banana clump. Planters throughout the world
usually plant sturdy and healthy sword suckers. The sword suckers are
vigorous, produce bigger and heavier bunches in 11 months than the water
suckers do in more than 15 months. The sword suckers are planted when
they attain the height of 80-120 cm. heading back of tall sucker is beneficial.
The suckers should be vigorously growing and must have attained 2 kg weight.
76
The suckers should have narrow, sword shaped leaves. The base of the suckers Banana
should be thick and tapering towards the top. Suckers should be free from
any pests and diseases. Peepers (very young suckers) produce late and poor
crop.

Raising of the banana plants from the suckers in the pots

Rhizomes either whole or pieces (1.5 to 2.0 kg or so in weight) may be

planted first in the nursery for sprouting or directly in the main field. For
quick multiplication of a variety, rhizome bits may be used, though the plants
will require little longer time to fruit. The shape of the rhizome should be
conical but not flat. It must have a sound heart bud and side buds.

2.8 NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENT

The nutritional requirement of banana is very high. It is mainly exploited
from a very limited soil depth due to shallow root system of the crop. The
choice and the dosages of nutrients to be applied depend on the cultivar,
initial soil fertility, stage of plant growth, climate etc. The growth of the plant
severely affect due to nitrogen deficiency and older leaf showed sign of
chlorosis. A complete dose of manures and fertilizers should be applied by
six months after planting. Nitrogen hastens maturity and increases yield.
Phosphorous promotes strong root system, healthy rhizome, favours fruit
setting and accelerates ripening. Potash increases the number of hands/bunch
and finger size, improves fruit quality, develops resistance to diseases and
reduces water uptake in banana. Banana needs heavy manure near the soil
surface because of their shallow rooting.
The application of nitrogen should be done at 2, 4 and 6 months after planting.
Phosphorous should be applied at planting time. Potash should be given in
two split doses i.e. one at planting and another at the time of initiation of
flowers. The following doses of manures and fertilizers are given to banana
crop in different important banana producing states. (Table-2).
Table 2: Manures and fertilizers doses for Bananan growing states.

States FYM g/plant

(kg/plant) Nitrogen Phosphorous Potassium
Andhra Pradesh 10 – 15 600 720 600
Bihar 9 125 80 225
Gujarat 10 – 15 180 90 180 77
Sub Tropical Fruits Karnataka 15 200 120 250
Kerala
Irrigated 10 190 115 300
Rainfed 10 100 200 400
Madhya Pradesh 20 230 160 300
Odisha 10 80 32 90
Tamil Nadu 10 110 35 330
West Bengal
Robusta 10 – 15 140 35 90
Cavendish 10 – 15 90 35 90

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: a) Space is given below for the answer.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
1. Write down the soil and climatic requirement of banana.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. How can we propagate banana ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

2.9 CULTURAL PRACTICES

2.9.1 Irrigation
Water requirement of banana varies according to topography, soil, climate,
cultivar and type of culture. If there is no rain, the plants should be irrigated
immediately after planting. The soil in banana plantation should not be allowed
to dry completely. It is moisture loving plant, therefore water requirement is
very high. It requires adequate soils moisture throughout the year. Banana is
normally grown as a rainfed perennial crop in the western coast of India. In
the hilly areas also no irrigation is applied. In Bihar, irrigation is given at
every 10 days interval from December to June. More irrigation is required in
north Gujarat and East Khandesh. In banana, trenches are dug between
alternate rows which serve to drain off excess water during the rains and later
as irrigation channels. In West Bengal, during dry periods the plants are
irrigated at an interval of 10-15 days. Tall cultivars in West Bengal are grown
78 under un-irrigated condition or marginally irrigated condition.
Drip irrigation can reduce quantity of water and increases yield and decreases Banana
number of days to harvest and increases leaf production. Dry soil conditions
adversely affect the banana yield, because there is reduction in stomatal size
which interferes with carbondioxide supply and in turn it reduces the
photosynthetic efficiency.

2.9.2 Inter-cropping
At the earlier stages of growth, intercrops can easily be grown in banana
plantation. Mixed cropping is also practiced in some parts of India. Depending
upon the climatic conditions different vegetables crops like brinjal, colocasia,
turmeric, chillies, okra, radish, cauliflower, cabbage should be grown as
intercrops. In mixed cropping of banana; arecanut, coconut growing is a
common practice along the coastal belts of Tamil Nadu. Paddy is also grown
as mixed crop. Banana is grown as a shade plant for coffee, cocoa, rubber,
young mango trees and orange in different parts of India.

2.9.3 De-suckering
Suckers are produced from the rhizome of banana. The numbers of suckers
produced per clump varies depending on cultivar, soil fertility, environment
etc. Removal of unwanted suckers is one of the most critical operations in
banana cultivation and is known as de-suckering. It is done either by cutting
off the sucker or the heart may be destroyed without detaching the suckers
from the parent plant.
Removal of all suckers up to flowering of mother plant and maintaining only
one follower afterwards is the best de-suckering practice. However, under
high density planting, it is better to leave the follower after harvesting 75-80
per cent of the plant crop so that uniform cultural practices can be followed.

2.9.4 Weed Control

In banana, weed is a problem at the early stage of growth. Weed free
environment is essential in banana field, for conservation of moisture, proper
utilization of nutrients, as well as for effective control of pests and diseases.
Spading is the usual method of controlling weeds. Shallow cultivation at
early stage of crop is essential to keep down the weeds and to provide better
conditions for plant growth. Weeds can also be checked with the use of
herbicides. Diuron @ 4 kg/ha. and Simazine @ 6 kg/ha. control grasses and
broad leaved weeds when applied after planting and repeated 30 days after
planting.

2.9.5 Earthing Up
Earthing up should be done during the rainy season to provide drainage and
to avoid waterlogging at the base. During summer and winter the plants should
be in furrows and on ridges during rainy season. There is a chance of the
clump growing out of the soil.

2.9.6 Trashing, Propping, Wrapping and Mattocking

Lot of undesirable material grows in the banana field which must be removed
79
Sub Tropical Fruits from time to time. Removal of undesirable material such as dried, diseased
and decayed leaves, pseudostem after harvest, male bud, last end of
inflorescence and withered floral parts is known as trashing.
Propping is a method by which support is given to banana bearing plants
with the help of bamboo crutches, protecting them from bending or falling
down, due to heavy bunch load and from any damage by wind. Propping is
very essential for all tall varieties.
Wrapping is the covering of bunches with polythene or gunny cloth that
protects the fruits, from intense heat, hot wind etc and improves the colour of
fruits.
After the harvest of bunch, the plant stem should be cut in stages at least after
30-45 days to facilitate mobilization of the nutrients from the mother to the
developing ratoon plant. The pseudostem should be cut leaving a stump of
about 0.6 m height. This is known as Mattocking.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note: a) Space is given below for the answer.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
1. Define de-suckering.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. Differentiate between Trashing and Propping.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

2.10 INSECT-PEST AND DISEASES

A number of pests and diseases attack the Banana plant which have been
described below:

2.10.1 Insect-pest
The most common pests reported to cause heavy losses in banana are the
following
2.10.1.1 Banana stem borer (Odoiporus longicollis)
The larva of the insects feeds and tunnels inside the corm. The corm becomes
riddled with a tunnel which rots into a blackened mass. Leaves turn yellow,
wither and the whole plant dies.

80 The insects were controlled with Celphos @ 3 tablets/plant. After placing,

the tablets inside the pseudostem, the silt should be plastered with mud. Follow Banana
clean cultivation practices or remove all infested plants and destroy them.
Apply 0.1 per cent Carbaryl dust to control the borers.
2.10.1.2 Banana Aphid (Pentalonia nigronervosa)
The pest is minor but of major importance. The nymphs and adult suck the
sap from young and tender leaves. The aphids transmit virus causing bunchy
top disease which is very harmful.
Spray 0.03 per cent Rogor 30 EC (dimethoate), or Phosphamidon or
Monocrotophos or 0.05 per cent Malathion or 0.01 per cent Metasystox. Soil
application of Phorate or Carbofuran at 4.5 kg/ha near the base of suckers or
rhizome at the time of planting is beneficial.
2.10.1.3 Thrips
The damage done by thrips is by oviposition on the young fruits harm them
and in severe cases they become rough.
It can be controlled by covering the bunches between February and May and
by applying DDVP as piran (dichlorvos) at 19 per cent a.i. impregnated in
0.5 g plastic cones.
2.10.1.4 Moth
The damage done by the pest is primarly caused by larval feeding on the
female flowers and young fruits.
Monocrotophos @ 0.02 per cent spray or Diazon @ 1 per cent spray gives
effective control of scab moth (Nacoleia octasema).
2.10.1.5 Banana Beetle (Colaspis hypochlora)
The beetle feeds on young leaves and skin of young fruits. Occurrence of this
pest is usually maximum during the rainy season. Severe scarring of fruit
skin leads to underdeveloped fruit which fetches fewer prices in the market.
Clean cultivation, particularly the removal of grass weeds from plantations,
where the population of this pest is high, can often reduce the population
levels enough to avoid the use of insecticides. Dusting with Malathion is
also effective.
2.10.1.6 Nematodes
Nematodes are now recognized as an important soil borne pathogens causing
decline in yield of bananas. Affected plants don’t response to fertilizer,
irrigation and cultural practices. Small dark spots appear on the root. The
nematode lays eggs in the root tissue. After hatching out, larvae also feed on
the root. Plant growth is retarded and yield is adversely affected.
Banana sets may be disinfected either by paring, heat therapy, and chemical
treatment or by combination of these methods. The paired sets can be
disinfected by dipping them in a hot water bath at 55°C for 10 minutes or soil
application of carbofuran at 2 kg a.i. per hectare can check the nematodes.
81
Sub Tropical Fruits 2.10.2 Diseases
Banana is much more vulnerable to diseases than to the insect-pests. The
diseases often occur in epidemic proportions and bring about heavy losses.
Of the diseases Panama disease or banana wilt, leaf spot or sigatoka disease
and bunchy top have been found to profoundly alter banana production.
2.10.2.1 Panama disease or Banana wilt (Fusarium oxysporum)
The disease was first reported from
Panama in early 1900 century. It is one
of most important soil borne disease
affecting banana plant. Symptoms of
disease consist of successive wilting
and drying up of leaves. Numerous
brown and reddish streaks will be
seen, running through the corm
upwards.
The diseased plants should be
uprooted and burnt. Highly infected Banana Wilt
soil should not be replanted with
banana at least for 3-4 years. Use of disease free planting material and resistant
cultivars are recommended. Other measures include use of quick lime near
the base of the plant and soaking with water. Apply Bavistin @ 1 g per litre.
Apply major portion of nutrients (NPK) in the form of farmyard manure and
groundnut cake.
2.10.2.2 Leaf Spot or Sigatoka Disease (Mycosphaerella musicola –
Sexual Stage and Cercospora musae – asexual stage)
This disease caused epidemic in
Sigatoka valley in Fiji in 1913 and the
name sigatoka disease comes from
this place. It is a fungal disease.
Infection occurs through the stomata
of the young leaves. The size of bunch
and fruit is reduced due to lesser leaf
area available for photosynthesis. Leaf Spot Disesase of Banana
High humidity causes due to close
planting, heavy weed or grass cover and failure to remove suckers, favour in
spreading the disease.
Proper drainage of the field is very important for control of this disease.
Avoid too close planting and remove suckers and weeds regularly. Affected
leaves should be removed and destroyed. Application of three weekly sprays
of Bordeaux mixture (4:5:50) is also effective. Fungicides mixed with oil
have also been found effective to control the disease.
2.10.2.3 Bacterial Wilt (Pseudomonas solanacearum)
Commonly known as Moko disease is prevalent in Tropical America, but not
uncommon in Asian and African countries. The symptoms of bacterial wilt
82
are very often confused with those of Panama wilt. Bunches of infected plants Banana
showing premature ripening of isolated fingers, often indicate the presence
of Moko disease. The other symptom is blackened fruit rot. The disease is
spread by soil contact, infected pruning knives, flower visiting insects and
diseased planting material. The disease is most severe in wet land.
The disease is controlled by phyto-sanitation practices. In acute infection of
fields, fallowing should be practiced. Destruction of infected plants and control
of flower visiting insects minimize the incidence of the disease. Resistant
varieties like “Morthoman”, “Rasthali” atc. may be considered for cultivation
in the infected field.
2.10.2.4 Bunchy Top
It is a viral disease transmitted to
healthy plants by the aphid
(Pentalonia nigronervosa). The
dwarf bananas are very susceptible to
this disease. The leaves of badly
infected plants are bunched together
at the top, forming a rosette. The
diseased plants remain stunted in Bunchy top disease of Banana
growth and does not produce bunch
of any commercial value. Virus carrying aphid is most often found at ground
level on the base of the plant.
Always plant virus free sucker obtained from reliable nursery. Remove all
affected plants along with complete rhizome. Spray of 0.3 per cent Rogor or
Phosphamidon or Monocrotophos (0.05 %) is found beneficial. Never allow
banana plants/clumps a place for more than 3 years. Herbicide like 2,4-D
may be applied on the stool after cutting down for effective killing of the
plant.
2.10.2.5 Banana Mosaic
A viral disease caused by CMV. Abnormal thickening of leaf veins is one of
the common symptoms. The possible vector is Aphis maidis, A. gossypi and
Pentalonia nigronervosa. To check the spread of the disease, the field should
be kept weed free. The infected suckers should not be planted and the
insecticides should be sprayed regularly to control the vector.

2.11 HARVESTING
Banana is climacteric fruit. Fruit does not ripe early and uniformly on the
plant. Banana comes into flowering in nine months or so after planting. The
fruits become ready in 3-4 months after flowering. In this way, it is a one year
crop under good crop management. They are harvested when they are green
and fully mature. The fruits are harvested when top leaves start drying.
The colour of the fruit changes from deep green to a lighter green. Shed the
floral ends of the fruits with slightest touch of the hand. The angles or ridges
of the fruits become less prominent or they become round i.e. after the
attainment of 3/4th full stage.
83
Sub Tropical Fruits The harvesting is performed by cutting the bunch retaining 15-20 cm stalk
this will help in handling. Sometimes partial harvesting is done when fruits
are required for vegetable purposes. Average yield of dwarf varieties is 300-
400 quintals/ha and tall varieties 150-200 quintals/ha.

2.12 STORAGE
After harvesting banana is subjected to either storage or ripening. The fruits
can be stored at a temperature of 13°C and a relative humidity of 85-95 per
cent for about three weeks. At low temperatures, the banana fruits become
black due to chilling injury and therefore they should not be placed in
refrigerator. Storage life can be prolonged by keeping the fruit in relatively
high concentration of CO2 and low concentration of O2. Ripening of banana
fruits can easily be retarded for 10-12 days at ambient temperature (about
30°C) held in sealed polythene bags. Mature green banana fruits after
harvesting resulted in reducing ripening without affecting fruit quality when
they are immersed in hot water at 50°C for 15 min. or 54°C for 10 min. Shelf
life of banana fruits and their quality can also be extended with the use of
ethylene absorbent like vermiculite blocks when they are soaked in potassium
permanganate at 100 g/litre and inserted into polythene bags each holding
one hand with 12 fruits.

2.13 PACKAGING AND TRANSPORTATION

The bananas are harvested in bunches which are intact without any injury to
the fruits. For packing purpose, the fruits from the bunches may be separated
carefully, packed in ventilated containers and transported to the distant market
by rail, road, ship or air.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

Note : a) Space is given below for the answer.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
1. Write short note on Panama and bunchy top disease.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. What are the control measures of Banana stem borer and Banana
aphid ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
3. What are the maturity standards of banana ?
............................................................................................................
84
 ........................................................................................................... Banana

............................................................................................................

2.14 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have studied about the area, production nutritive value, uses
and cultivation of banana along with its harvesting and marketing. You have
also studied that how Banana can be planted through out the year except in
severe winter and during heavy rains, at a distance of 1.2 to 1.8 m for dwarf
cultivars and 2.4 m for tall cultivars. Besides this method of propagation,
nutritional requirements. De-suckering, earthing up, trashing, propping,
wrapping, mattocking, cultural practices with insects and diseases of banana
and their controls have been also studied under this unit.

2.15 KEY WORDS

De-suckering : Removal of unwanted suckers from the base
of the mother plant is known as de-suckering.
Trashing : Removal of undesirable material such as dried,
diseased and decayed leaves, pseudostem after
harvest, male bud, last end of inflorescence and
withered floral parts is known as trashing.
Propping : Giving support to the banana bearing plants
with the help of bamboo crutches.
Mattocking : The practice of removing banana pseudostem
after harvesting of fruit.

2.16 FURTHER REFERENCES

1. Abdulkhadar, J.B.M. Md., Chellappan, K., Pillai, O.A.A. and
Chattopadhyay, P.K. (1985). Banana. In: Fruits of India. Tropical and
Sub-tropical (ed. T.K. Bose), Naya Prokash, Calcutta.
2. Singh, S.P. (2002). Commercial Fruits. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana.
3. Singh, R. (1969). Fruits. National Book Trust of India, New Delhi.

2.17 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. Deep, well drained, friable loamy soil with adequate organic matter is
ideal for its cultivation. Banana is a crop of humid tropics, but it can be
grown to an altitude of 1200 metre with a temperature ranges between 10
to 40°C.
2. Banana is commercially propagated by suckers. Suckers emerge from
the base of the mother plants are called to be as sword suckers. These
sword suckers are vigorous, produce bigger and heavier bunches. The
sword suckers are planted when they attain the height of 80-120 cm. 85
Sub Tropical Fruits
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1. Removal of unwanted suckers from the base of the mother plant is known
as de-suckering. It is done either by cutting off the sucker or the heart
may be destroyed without detaching the suckers from the parent plant.
2. Removal of undesirable material such as dried, diseased and decayed
leaves, pseudostem after harvest, male bud, last end of inflorescence and
withered floral parts is known as trashing while propping is the method
of giving support to the banana bearing plants with the help of bamboo
crutches, protecting them from bending or falling down due to heavy
bunch load and from any damage by wind.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1. Panama disease could be first reported from Panama in early 1900 century.
It is a soil borne fungus disease and most serious in poorly drained soil. It
gets entry in the plant body through roots. Successive wilting, drying up
of leaves, older leaves turn yellow from the margins are its symptoms.
The whole plant is erect but dead to rot. The fruits become bottle necked.
Such fruits mature unevenly and too rapidly. Uproot the infected plants
and burnt them. Use of disease free planting material and resistant cultivars
are recommended. Apply Bavistin @ 1 g/litre.
Bunchy top is a viral disease transmitted to healthy plants by the aphid
(Pentalonia nigronervosa). Dwarf bananas are very susceptible. The
leaves are bunched together at the top, forming a rosette. Margins of the
leaves become wavy and slightly rolled upwards. The diseased plants
remain stunted in growth. Always plant virus free suckers. Remove all
affected plants. Spray 0.3 per cent Rogor or Phosphamidon or
Monocrotophos (0.05 %) is found beneficial. Herbicide like 2,4 - D may
be applied on the stool after cutting down for effective killing of the
plant.
2. Banana stem borer could be controlled with Celphos @ 3 tablets/plant.
After placing the tablets inside the Pseudostem the silt should be plastered
with mud. Follow clean cultivation practices or remove all infested plants
and destroy them. Spray 0.04 per cent Endosulphan or 0.1 per cent
Carbaryl.
Banana aphid can be controlled by spraying 0.03 per cent Rogor 30 EC
(dimethoate), or Phosphamidon or Monocrotophos or 0.05 per cent
Malathion or 0.01 per cent Metasystox. Soil application of Phorate or
Carbofuran at 4.5 kg/ha near the base of suckers or rhizome at the time of
planting is beneficial.
3. Banana is a climacteric fruit. Fruits are harvested when the colour of the
fruit turns from deep green to a lighter green, fully mature, top leaves
start drying. The angles or ridges of the fruits become less prominent or
they become round i.e. after the attainment of 3/4th full stage.

86
 Citrus
UNIT 3 CITRUS (Citrus sp.)
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Area and Production
3.3 Soil
3.4 Climate
3.5 Species and their Commercial Varieties
3.5.1 Species
3.5.2 Commercial Varieties
3.5.2.1 Mandarins
3.5.2.2 Sweet Oranges
3.5.2.3 Lemon
3.5.2.4 Sour Lime
3.5.2.5 Sweet Lime
3.5.2.6 Grapefruit
3.5.2.7 Pummelo
3.6 Planting
3.7 Propagation
3.7.1 Raising Stock Seedlings
3.7.2 Budding
3.7.3 Rootstock
3.7.3.1 Sour Orange
3.7.3.2 Lemon and related Species
3.7.3.3 Limes and related Species
3.7.3.4 Trifoliate Orange and Hybrids
3.7.3.5 Mandarin
3.7.3.6 Sweet Orange
3.8 Nutritional Requirements
3.9 Cultural Practices
3.9.1 Care of Young Plants
3.9.2 Irrigation
3.9.3 Weed Management
3.9.4 Inter-cropping
3.9.5 Mulching
3.9.6 Training and Pruning
3.9.7 Thinning of Fruits
3.10 Insect-pests and Diseases
3.10.1 Insect-pests
3.10.1.1 Citrus Psylla
87
Sub Tropical Fruits 3.10.1.2 Citrus Leaf Miner
3.10.1.3 Citrus White Flies
3.10.1.4 Mites
3.10.1.5 Bark Eating Caterpillar
3.10.2 Diseases
3.10.2.1 Citrus Canker
3.10.2.2 Scab
3.10.2.3 Gummosis
3.10.2.4 Virus Like Diseases
3.10.2.5 Citrus Nematode
3.11 Physiological Disorder
3.11.1 Citrus Decline
3.11.2 Granulation
3.11.3 Fruit Drop
3.12 Harvesting
3.13 Storage
3.14 Packaging
3.15 Transportation
3.16 Processing
3.17 Let Us Sum Up
3.18 Key Words
3.19 Further References
3.20 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

3.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be in a position to:
• know the history and uses of citrus,
• discuss status of area and production of citrus species in the country,
• describe the soil, climatic and nutritional requirements,
• identify the species and their commercial varieties,
• describe the planting, propagation and training methods,
• describe various pests-diseases and physiological disorders, and
• identify maturity indices, harvesting, storage, packaging and transportation
of fruits.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Citrus (Citrus sp.) is one of the worlds leading tree fruit crop. It is a crop
adaptable to wide range of soils, planting and cultural arrangements, and
grows in more than 100 nations. Citrus has a number of species and varieties
88
of fruits, known for their characteristic flavour and attractive range of colours. Citrus
The attractive evergreen foliage and flowers as well as the extraordinary
fragrance are the added aesthetic value of citrus trees.

Different Types of Citrus Species

Most of the cultivated species of citrus are believed to be native of tropical

and subtropical region of South-East Asia stretching from India and China in
the northeast to Australia and New Caledonia in the South-east. The north-
eastern region of India is also considered as one of the natural homes of
citrus, since quite a few non-edible species like Citrus indica, C. ichangensis,
etc. are found to grow in this region.
Citrus fruit are not only delicious and refreshing but also they provide vitamins,
minerals and many other substances. The principle edible portion of a citrus
fruit is the juice present in juice vesicles. The citrus fruits contains considerable
amount of vitamin C. The juice of ripe orange and mandarin contains 8 to 12
per cent sugars and other soluble solids, 0.5 to 1.5 per cent citric acid, 25-80
mg ascorbic acid per 100 g. In lemon and lime, the acid content may go up to
6 and 8 per cent, respectively. The fruit of species with sweet juice (eg. sweet
orange, mandarin and grapefruit) are eaten as fresh.

3.2 AREA AND PRODUCTION

The major citrus producing countries of the world are USA, Brazil, Japan,
Spain, Italy, Mexico, India, China, Egypt, Australia etc. In India, citrus fruits
are grown in 412.33 thousand ha. with a total production of 5303.85 thousand
mt. annually. Productivity of citrus varies from 5.0 to 15.0 tonnes per hectare
depending upon the agro climatic regions. Among the citrus fruits, the
mandarins (santras) occupy the largest area and production, followed by sweet
oranges, limes and lemons. The major mandarin growing areas in India are
Coorg of Karnataka state, Nagpur belt of Maharashtra, Darjeeling district of
West Bengal, East and West districts of Sikkim, Kamrup, Dibrugarh and
Lakhimpur districts of Assam, certain parts of Meghalaya, Tripura, Manipur,
Nagaland, Mizoram and foothills of Himachal Pradesh. Sweet oranges are
grown in Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, parts of Tamil Nadu and parts of
North Western region. Acid lime is common in Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Karnataka and West Bengal. Kinnow, has become quite
popular in Punjab, few districts of Rajasthan, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh
and Jammu district of Jammu and Kashmir.
89
Sub Tropical Fruits Table 1: Statewise area, production and productivity in total of Citrus during 2016-17.

Sl. State Area Production Productivity

No. (000 ha.) (000 mt.) ha/mt
1 Madhya Pradesh 96.58 1380.78 14.30
2 Maharashtra 108.00 795.96 7.37
3 Punjab 35.39 777.63 21.97
4 Andhra Pradesh 25.81 438.77 17.00
5 Gujarat 31.18 421.77 13.53
6 Bihar 35.28 318.37 9.02
7 Karnataka 11.12 273.34 24.58
8 Haryana 12.03 244.86 20.35
9 Assam 18.37 227.69 12.39
10 Odisha 19.43 191.25 9.84
11 Rajashtan 8.23 169.62 20.61
12 Telangana 10.91 63.81 5.85
Total 412.33 5305.85 176.81

3.3 SOIL
Citrus trees show great adaptability to a wide range of soils from coarse sand
to heavy clays. In general, light to medium, well aerated, deep, loose, fertile
soils which are free from stagnant water and injurious salts are considered
ideal for citrus. Good drainage which ensures proper aeration is essential for
good growth and sustained high yield in citrus. The best pH for citrus soil
ranges from 5.5 to 6.6. Mandarins are grown in acidic, sandy to clay loam
soils in north eastern hills as well as in non-acidic, heavy black soils in Nagpur
region. Citrus trees are particularly sensitive to high salt concentrations and
may be injured if the total concentrations in the soil exceed 1000 ppm.

3.4 CLIMATE
Citrus trees grow well in tropical and subtropical climates. It can tolerate
light frost for a short period. Flowers and young fruits are very sensitive to
frost and may drop even at temperature slightly below 0°C for a very short
period. Near the equator citrus can be grown from sea level to an altitude of
1000 m amsl. The optimum temperature for the growth of citrus is between
25°C and 30°C. High night temperature is harmful because pigmentation of
fruit doesn’t take place at night. Hot winds and excessive heat during flowering
and fruit setting considered to be harmful for good bearing and causes fruit
drop and sun burn. A dry period before flowering generally helps in better
and quicker initiation of flower buds. Citrus needs 875 to 1400 mm well
distributed rains if grown without irrigation. High humidity or rain after a
dry spell during fruit maturation may cause splitting of fruits. Fruits grown
in relatively moist climate tend to have thinner peel and more juice then
those grown in drier climates. Windbreaks should be raised in areas where
stormy wind is expected to avoid the young fruits to be blown.
90
 Citrus
3.5 SPECIES AND THEIR COMMERCIAL
VARIETIES
3.5.1 Species
Citrus fruits can be classified on the two modern systems i.e. the first one is
Swingle’s system that involves a total of three genera, 21 species of which
16 are in citrus and 9 botanical varieties and the second is Tanaka’s system
that involves a total of three genera and 151 species of which 144 species are
in citrus.
Among all the citrus species 8 species generally cultivated for edible purpose
are: Citrus sinensis, C. reticulata, C. aurantium, C. limon, C. aurantifolia,
C. grandis, C. paradisi and Citrus medica. Important commercial cultivars
of these species are as under:

3.5.2 Commercial Varieties

3.5.2.1 Mandarins (Citrus reticulata Blanco)
i) Nagpur Santra : This is perhaps
the most important cultivar of
mandarin in India. Fruits sub
globose, colour not very uniform,
generally orange-yellow, smooth
surface, rind thin, adheres loosely
to the segments (10-12), pulp
vesicles uniformly golden yellow,
texture fine and tender, juice
abundant, well blended, flavour
Nagpur Santra
excellent.
ii) Kinnow : A hybrid between
“King” x “Willow Leaf”. It was
brought to Fruit Research Station,
Abohar from California in 1958-
59. Fruit medium to globose to
oblate. Skin golden yellow when
fully ripe. Acidity moderate with
fine sugar/acid blend, flavour very
rich. Seeds 12-25. Ripen in
January-February. Less prone to
fruit drop. Kinnow
iii) Khasi Orange : An important commercial cultivar, usually grown in
northeastern part of India. Fruits globose to oblate. Surface smooth,
orange-yellow or bright orange in colour. Rind thin with little adherence
to the segments (8-13), loose, pulp vesicles uniformly orange, texture
somewhat coarse, melting, juice abundant, well blended with moderate
flavour, seeds vary from 10-15.
iv) Coorg Orange : Most important commercial cultivar of South India,
91
especially in Coorg and other parts of Karnataka. Fruits oblate, colour
Sub Tropical Fruits bright yellow and uniform, segments 9-11, easily separable, pulp yellow,
texture fine and tender, juice abundant, seeds 15-28 with light green tinge
inside.
v) Darjeeling Orange : Also known as Sikkim orange and is cultivated
widely in and around Darjeeling hills. The trees are vigorous and prolific
bearer. Fruit are relatively small in size, somewhat flat in shape, colour
yellowish to orange when fully ripe, juice plenty and sweet with good
flavour, seeds a few.
vi) Local : Fruit small to medium, oblate to subglobose. Skin cadmium
coloured. Base short necked and furrowed. Flavour fair, juice abundant,
slightly acidic. Seeds 3 to 7 ripens in December-January.
Other cultivars are Satsuma, Emperor, Butwal etc.
3.5.2.2 Sweet Oranges
i) Mosambi : This cultivar is widely
grown in Maharashtra and Andhra
Pradesh. Fruit light yellowish
orange in colour, fruit small to
medium, subglobose, surface
rough with longitudinal furrows
and bears a circular ring around
the apical end. The rind is thin and
tight. Flesh colour is pale yellow
or whitish. Juice has low acidity.
Seeds 20-25 per fruit. Ripens in
November. Mosambi

ii) Malta (Blood Red) : This is popular in Punjab. Fruit medium to large,
roundish to slightly oblong in shape. Rind is thin, deep orange and tight.
Flesh fully red when ripe, rich flavour with sweetness and acidity well
blended. Fruit quality excellent. Seeds 8 to 10. Ripens in December.
iii) Sathgudi : This is a famous variety of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
Fruit is medium, subglobose, areole absent. Rind is medium thick, smooth
and finely pitted. The pulp is straw coloured, juicy with good flavour.
Seeds 12 to 20. Ripens from October to February.
iv) Pineapple : It has originated as a seedling in Florida. In India, it is
cultivated in Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. Fruit is medium to large,
subglobose, and orange in colour. Rind is thin, bright and glossy in
appearance. Flesh is primrose yellow, juicy, sweet and having flavour
like pineapple. Seeds 12 to 25. Mid season variety, ripens in December.
v) Washington Navel : It is originated in Brazil and was introduced to
Washington in 1870 and thus got the name. Trees less vigorous and poorly
adapted to humid tropics or intense desert heat. Fruit large round with
prominent navel, rind thick, membrane thin, pulp extremely tender and
melting, peeling and separation of segments easy, juice abundant, flavour
excellent, fruits seedless.
92 Other varieties are Jaffa, Shamouti, Valencia Late, Hamlin, Batavian etc.
3.5.2.3 Lemon Citrus

i) Eureka : Introduced from

America and Europe and best
suitedin Punjab and Western parts
of Uttar Pradesh. Tree medium to
large, spreading open sparingly
spinous.
Fruit medium, oblong, apex
nippled. Rind is mediumthin, Lemon - Eureka
colour lemon yellow, surface
slightly rough. Juice abundant, clear, strongly acidic with excellent flavour.
Seeds rarely present. Ripens in August - September.
ii) Baramasi : The tree of baramasi is vigorous, spreading and thornless.
New growth and flowers are purple. The trees flower and fruit throughout
the year. The fruit is lemon yellow, round, tapering towards the base,
apex is rounded. The skin is smooth and thin. Fruit is very juicy and
seedless, contains 7 per cent acidity. This variety is more suitable than
Eureka for growing in the irrigated arid region of Punjab.
iii) Pant Lemon : An indigenous variety of Assam and grown extensively in
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and other parts of South India. Tree small,
open, thorny, fruit medium-sized, ovoid to oblong, rind medium, thick,
surface smooth, segments range from 9 to 12, pulp moderately firm,
greenish white, vesicles slender, juicy, highly acidic, quality very good,
average number of seeds may range from 0 to 14.
Other varieties are Lisbon, Meyer Lemon, Kagzi Kalan, Villafranca, Pant
Lemon.
3.5.2.4 Sour Lime
A highly polyembryonic species, tree
small, bushy, thorny. Important
cultivar of this species in India is
Kagzi Lime. Fruit small, round to
oval, greenish yellow, thin skinned.
Core solid, pulp greenish, juice
abundant, highly acidic. Seeds small
and smooth. This cultivar is highly
susceptible to Tristeza virus and
bacterial canker. Sour Lime

3.5.2.5 Sweet Lime

A highly poylembryonic species, tree
medium in size, irregular growth
habit, thorny. No specific cultivar is
their, only local cultivar is known.
Fruits medium sized, subglobose to
oblong, nipple flat, rind thin, smooth
with prominent oil glands, greenish to Sweet Lime 93
Sub Tropical Fruits orange yellow in colour on maturity. Segments around 10, pulp colour straw
yellow, very juicy, lacking in acidity and insipid. Seeds 5 to 6. Ripens in
September.
3.5.2.6 Grapefruit
i) Marsh Seedless : Fruit medium
to large, oblate roundish in shape.
Skin lightly yellow, smooth.
Acidity and sweetness medium.
Seeds range between 0 to 6.
Ripens in December - January.
ii) Duncan : Fruit large, oblate in Marsh Seedless
shape. Skin pale light yellow, flesh
pink. Acidity and sweetness less
blended, bitterness well marked.
Seeds 40 to 50. Ripens in November - December.
iii) Foster : Fruit medium to long, oblate in shape. Skin pale yellow, flesh
pink. Acidity and sweetness well blended, bitterness well marked. Seeds
40 to 50. Ripens in November - December.
3.5.2.7 Pummelo
A monoembryonic species, fruits
large, subglobose to pyriform in shape
with thick spongy rind and less juice,
borne singly. Seeds very large and
coarsely veined. It is grown in certain
parts of Punjab, Uttar Pradesh. Pummelo

3.6 PLANTING
In citrus, square and rectangular system of planting are generally practiced.
The planting density usually varies from 200 to 400 plants/hectare but high
density planting is also followed using modified agro-techniques. In square
system, spacing of 3 m x 3 m (1111 plants/ha.) or 4 m x 4 m (625 plants/ha.)
for limes and lemons, 5 m x 5 m (400 plants/ha.) for mandarins, 6 m x 6 m
(278 plants/ha.) for oranges, 7 m x 7 m (204 plants/ha.) for pummelo and
grapefruit are generally used. However, in rectangular system the spacing for
different citrus species can be modified using 3 x 5 m (667 plants/ha.), 4 m x
6 m (417 plants/ha.), 5 m x 7 m (286 plants/ha.) and 6 m x 8 m (208 plants/
ha.) which leave more space between rows providing scope for mechanized
orchard management. A spacing of 4.5 to 5 m is found to be optimum for
Kinnow mandarin budded on Jatti Khatti. Coorg Mandarins are planted at a
spacing of 4.5 m while Nagpur mandarins are spaced at 5.5 to 6 m. High
density planting of Satsuma mandarin accommodate 1666 and 3333 plants/
ha. considerably increased fruit production.
Under North India, citrus is planted twice a year. The spring planting season
starts after 15 February and monsoon season starts from July to September.
94
Pits of 50 x 50 x 50 cm are prepared and may be dug deep enough only to Citrus
accommodate the ball of the plant. If the soil is of heavy texture, pits of 1 m
x 1 m x 1 m may be dug to facilitate better root penetration. Before planting
the seedlings, the pits should be properly filled with 25 kg farmyard manure
or compost and BHC @ 200 g per pits. At the time of planting the soil is
taken out from the centre of the pit to accommodate the ball of the earth
around the roots. Care should be taken so that the bud union is left at least 15
cm above the ground level. The soil is then replaced and firmly pressed around
the plant without damaging the roots. The plants are watered immediately
after planting.

3.7 PROPAGATION
Seeds of most of the citrus species are polyembryonic, the nucllear seedlings
obtained through seed propagation come remarkably true to types. Mandarin
and acid lime plantations in India are mostly raised from seeds. Lemons,
citrons and sweet limes are easily propagated by cuttings. Air layering can
also be done in pummelo and mandarins. However, most of the citrus cultivars
are propagated commercially by budding.

3.7.1 Raising Stock Seedlings

Seeds should be obtained from good, fully matured fruits growing on vigorous,
productive healthy trees. Seeds are best sown fresh as they loose viability on
drying. The optimum temperature for seeds germination is 32°C. Germination
in seed bed takes about a month. Five to six months later, uniform, upright,
vigorous seedlings are transplanted on a nursery bed at spacing of 30 x 100
cm or into plastic bags. These seedlings will be ready for budding after six
months. The stock seedlings are considered buddable when the stem thickness
reaches 8 mm in diameter or pencil size.

3.7.2 Budding
Bud wood is taken from certified virus free mother plant. Buds should be
round and brown but not angular and green, and should be unsprouted. The
most common method of budding citrus is shield or T-budding. Budding
should preferably be done at 20 to 30 cm height of the stock. To prevent
water penetration, the inserted bud wood is wrapped with transparent
polythene strip leaving the eye free. On successful union, the strip is
unwrapped after 2 to 3 weeks and the bud is allowed to grow. Lopping of the
rootstock just above the inserted bud is done 4 to 8 weeks after budding
depending on season of budding. An alternative practice is to first cut the
budded seedling completely well above the bud, immediately after budding.
The budded plants become ready for planting in 1 to 2 years depending on
growth rate.

3.7.3 Rootstock
The rootstock is a vital component of a budded citrus tree. Since every aspect
of a citrus tree, such as growth, longevity, performance, disease resistance,
fruit quality etc. are influenced to a great extent by rootstocks. There is a
95
Sub Tropical Fruits wide variability among rootstocks and no single rootstock is considered
satisfactory in all respects. Finding the best rootstock for each citrus species
or cultivars of a species in every locality is almost impossible. However, the
commonly used rootstocks are:
3.7.3.1 Sour Orange (Citrus
aurantium)
It is used as rootstock for oranges,
grapefruit and mandarin. Sour orange
is susceptible to burrowing nematode. Rootstock-Sour Orange fruits

3.7.3.2 Lemon and Related Species (C. limon)

Rough lemon (C. jambhiri) is probably of hybrid origin and is highly
polyembryonic. It can be used for oranges, grapefruit, lemons and mandarins.
It is tristeza tolerant but susceptible to foot rot and nematodes. Rough lemon
is a commonly used rootstock in India.
3.7.3.3 Lime and Related Species (C. aurantifolia)
The most widely used acid lime rootstock is rangpur lime. It is resistant to
tristeza but susceptible to foot rot. Sweet limes are very similar to rough
lemon.
3.7.3.4 Trifoliate Orange and Hybrids (Poncirus trifoliata)
Dwarf trees are produced when
trifoliate orange is used as rootstock.
It is resistant to phytophthora foot rot,
tristeza and the citrus nematode.
Citrange (Sweet orange x trifoliate
orange) is a widely used rootstock.
Troyer and Carrizo are quite common
Trifoliate orange-rootstock tree
rootstock.
3.7.3.5 Mandarin (C. reticulata)
Mandarin rootstock is widely used in China. The most common rootstock is
Cleopatra which is identical with Billi kichilli of India where it appears to be
native.
3.7.3.6 Sweet Orange (C. sinensis)
Sweet orange is widely used as a rootstock in California. It is susceptible to
phytophthora foot rot. It can be used for all citrus cultivars.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note : a) Space is given below for the answer.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
1. What are the main species of mandarin group ?
...........................................................................................................
96
 ............................................................................................................ Citrus

............................................................................................................
2. Write down the nutritive value of citrus fruits.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
3. Which species of citrus is cultivated for edible purpose ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

3.8 NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENT

Citrus being an evergreen plant requires generous supply of all essential
elements in order to have good plant growth and to bear good amount of best
quality fruits. For non bearing trees, fertilizer application may be done in an
area more than drip circle, leaving 15 to 30 cm radius around the tree trunk.
It is advisable to apply the fertilizers in split doses and application should be
made when there is sufficient moisture in the soil. In old bearing orchards,
since the entire area becomes covered with citrus roots, fertilizers may be
applied by broadcasting from trunk to trunk leaving 30 cm around the tree
trunk.
Citrus thrives well under a wide range of nutrient levels and it is almost
impossible to outline a single fertilizer programme that is best for all
conditions. A wide variety of fertilizers schedules are now used, which result
in higher yields of good quality fruits. A few of the fertilizer schedule was
followed for different citrus fruits.
Table 2 : For Malta Orange the following fertilizer schedule has been recommended.

Age of the plant Farmyard manure (kg/plant) Nitrogen (g/plant)

1–3 5 – 20 50 – 150
4–6 25 – 50 200 – 250
7–9 60 – 90 300 – 400
10 & above 100 400 – 800

Table 3 : For Khasi Orange the following fertilizer schedule has been recommended.

Age of Sulphate of Super phosphate Sulphate of

the plant ammonia (kg/plant) (kg/plant) potash (kg/plant)
5 1.125 0.787 0.450
10 2.250 2.025 1.462
15 & above 3.600 3.150 2.250
97
Sub Tropical Fruits Table 4 : For Darjeeling Orange the following fertilizer schedule has been
recommended for each plant.

Nutrients 2nd year 3rd year 4th year 5th year 6th year

N (g) 100 150 200 250 300

P2O5 (g) 100 150 200 250 300

K2O (g) 100 150 200 250 300

Manure/Compost (kg) 10 10 – 15 10 – 15 10 – 15 10 – 15

The whole quantity of farmyard manure should be applied in December.

Nitrogen dose is given in two split doses the first part is given in February
and the second in April-May after the fruit set. For optimum productivity of
citrus cultivars the following fertilizers doses are recommended in some states
of India.
Table 5 : Fertilizer doses for some state of India.

State Nitrogen Phosphorous Potassium

(g/plant) (g/plant) (g/plant)

Punjab 400 200 200

Assam 300 250 300

Maharastra 600 200 100

Karnataka 400 200 200

Andhra Pradesh 400 200 200

Tamil Nadu 600 200 300

Micronutrients are usually supplied through foliar sprays. Better absorption

and effects of foliar sprays are observed when the new spring flush leaves are
half expanded. Zinc sulphate @ 0.5 per cent was applied for maintaining
satisfactory level of zinc.

3.9 CULTURAL PRACTICES

3.9.1 Care of Young Plants
The young plants must be protected against high or low temperature and
strong winds. The trunk of the young trees should be white washed to protect
them against the hot sun. Windbreaks should be planted on south-west
side to reduce sun burn and wind damage. The young citrus plants are
susceptible to frost and must be protected by providing a cover over the
young plants with farm waste material during first two years. The young
plants must be watered regularly in the arid regions. The sprouts which develop
on the trunks of the trees below the scaffold branches should be removed.
98
3.9.2 Irrigation Citrus

Water is one of the critical inputs for successful production of citrus fruits.
Citrus trees are more exacting in their demand for water. The water
requirement of citrus depends on rainfall evapo-transpiration and soil type.
As a rule, citrus soil should be kept moist, but not wet to a depth of at least
one meter. The water requirement in citrus varies according to species. The
water requirement of grapefruit is higher than other citrus and it varies from
900 to 1200 mm per year. Acid lime requires 875 mm water per year under
tropical conditions of South India. The application of irrigation at right time
and in right quantity is more important. Under North India weekly irrigation
during March to June and fortnightly irrigation during November to February,
are followed. Citrus trees are highly sensitive to excess moisture and water
logging conditions. The excessive irrigation may results in poor soil aeration
leading to reduced growth and yield, and leads to root rot and other diseases.
Citrus trees are sensitive to salinity and the total soluble salts in the irrigation
water should not exceed 1000 ppm.

3.9.3 Weed Management

The citrus orchards are infested with weeds which compete with main crop
for water, nutrients and space. Mechanical means of weed control like regular
tillage operations, keeps the growth of most of the weeds under check in
citrus orchards. As frequent cultivation of citrus soil is restricted to a greater
extent, use of chemical means of weed control has a wider acceptability in
citrus. Chemicals like simazine, atrazine, bromacil, paraquat and glyphosates
at 6 kg/ha a.i. was found effective in controlling weeds in citrus orchards.

3.9.4 Inter-cropping
The interspace in a young orchard can be economically utilized by growing
short duration crops till the citrus plants come into bearing. A careful selection
of intercrop is essential, to maintain soil conditions, as well as to improve
the soil fertility, during the pre bearing stage of citrus orchards. The intercrops
should be of short duration, shallow rooted, non exhaustive and preferably
of leguminous type. The choice of intercrop has great bearing in growth,
development and productivity of citrus. Pea, Cowpea are used as intercrop in
citrus orchards.

3.9.5 Mulching
Use of mulches of organic and synthetic origins conserve soil moisture, check
weed growth, regulate soil temperature and also prevent soil erosion. Mulching
materials of organic origin are also known to be beneficial through their
contribution to the supply of most of the plant nutrients and organic matter in
the soil. Various materials of plant origin like straw, leaves and crop residues
are being successfully employed as organic mulches, in citrus orchards. In
recent years, mulching with black polythene sheet is also under practise.

3.9.6 Training and Pruning

Citrus requires the least amount of pruning except that a very strong framework
99
Sub Tropical Fruits be developed at the beginning. For that purpose training and pruning are
started in the nursery and continued in the field during the early years. The
rootstock as well as 30 to 45 cm of the scion should be kept unbranched, and
4 to 5 well spaced branches are retained, so that a thick bushy crown is formed.
Annual pruning is undesirable in citrus as results of experiments show that
in general, pruning results in reduction in yield in citrus, but improves fruit
quality. Inward growing branches, crossed branches, dead or diseased woods,
should be removed.

3.9.7 Thinning of Fruits

When the citrus trees are 3 to 4 years old even than they produce heavy crop,
this is more common in light soils. At this stage the crop needs to be regulated
through judicious thinning especially during first few years of bearing. If
heavy crop are taken from the trees during the initial years, not only the tree
health gets impaired but also the fruit size is reduced. Thinning of the fruit
and floral buds, should be done to keep a balance of the tree foliage and
number of fruits, per tree and for proper flushing every year.

3.10 INSECT-PESTS AND DISEASES

Different citrus crops are attacked by several insect-pest and disease. These
have been described one by one below:

3.10.1 Insect-pests
A great number of insects and mites have been reported to attack different
species and cultivars of citrus.
3.10.1.1 Citrus Psylla (Diaphornia citri)
Citrus psylla attacks all species and
varieties of citrus. Both the adults and
nymphs of this pest suck the sap from
the tender parts of the buds, leaves and
branches. In case of severe attack, the
leaves become distorted, sickly, curled
up and wither away, causing heavy
leaf fall. The nymphs secrete whitish
crystalline honey dew which helps in
the growth of fungal infection. The
pest can be controlled by spraying the
plants with Phosphomidon (0.025 %),
Malathion (0.05 %) and Mono- Citrus Psylla-Insect
crotophos (0.025 %).
3.10.1.2 Citrus Leaf Miner (Phyllocnists citrella)
Citrus leaf miner is a serious pest of almost all citrus species, but this pest
mostly attacks species and varieties with succulent leaves and thin cuticle.
The larvae feed on the epidermis of tender leaves. The affected leaves turn
yellow, get distorted and crumpled which gradually dry and die away.
100
To control the pest population, Citrus
pruning of all affected parts during
winter should be done. Weekly spray
with systemic insecticides like
Phosphomidon (0.03 %) or Mono-
crotophos (0.035 %) during emer-
gence of new leaves has been found
to be highly beneficial. Citrus Leaf Miner

3.10.1.3 Citrus White Flies (Dialeurodes citric)

About one dozen species of white flies have been reported to attack citrus sp.
in India. Of these the most destructive ones are citrus black fly and citrus
white fly. Citrus black fly, has caused great damage to citrus orchards in few
districts of Maharashtra. The adult and nymphs suck the sap from tender
foliage and devitalize the tree. Sometimes, infestation is so severe that the
whole orchard looks sickly and black. Fruit turn black in colour and become
insipid in taste.
It can be effectively checked by spraying 570 ml of Thiodan 35 EC
(endosulphan) in 500 litre of water.
3.10.1.4 Mites
Several species of mites may attack tropical citrus orchards during dry periods.
It multiplies very fast when favourable weather condition (high temperature
and high humidity, but no or little rain) prevails. The mites destroy epidermal
cells of leaves and fruits, and thus cause ‘russeting’ (dark or silver grey spots).
Lesions formed on young fruit expand and render the fruit unfit for sale.
Control measures include spraying with 0.02 per cent Malathion or 0.05 per
cent Monocrotophos.
3.10.1.5 Bark Eating Caterpillar
It is commonly found insect causing damage to old and neglected plantations.
The caterpillars are bark feeders causing damage to transportation tissues.
Removal of webbing followed by spraying with carbaryl dust (50 % WP) on
the infested portion of the bark controls the pest.

3.10.2 Diseases
Citrus is attacked by a number of diseases caused by fungi, bacteria and
viruses. The important one’s are discussed below:
3.10.2.1 Citrus Canker (Xanthomonas citri pv. citri (Hasse))
It is one of the most serious disease of kagzi lime, especially during the rainy
season. The disease is highly infectious spread from tree to tree through the
water splash. It affects the leaves, twigs, fruits and even thorns. The lesions
appear as small, yellowish spots which enlarge to a diameter of 3 to 4 mm
and become raised and rough or spongy and turn brown. In case of severe
infection, the fruit becomes totally unmarketable.

101
Sub Tropical Fruits The spread of infection can be
checked by pruning and burning of
diseased twigs, especially before
monsoon. The cut ends of stem and
branches may be disinfected with
Bordeaux paints containing 1 kg
monohydrated copper sulphate, 2 kg
hydrated lime and 3 kg linseed oil.
Three sprays of Streptocycline at 100
ppm or combination of Streptomycin
Citrus Canker
and Copper or Neem cake suspension
during February, October and December would keep the disease under control.
3.10.2.2 Scab (Elsinoe fawetti)
Sour orange orchards are affected by this form of scab, which is widely
distributed. The typical symptoms of scab are development of corky lesions
on leaves, fruits and on young twigs, distortion of leaves, hardening of fruits
leading to premature drop in severe infection.
It can be effectively controlled by spraying Bavistin (0.05 %), Topsin-M (0.05
%) with pasting Bordeaux mixture (1 %) after pruning the infected parts.
3.10.2.3 Gummosis (Phytophthora palmovira)
The disease usually starts with dark
water soaked spots on the bark at the
base of the tree, later the bark shrinks
and loosens in vertical strips, while
the gum is exuded. Sweet oranges,
mandarins, grapefruits and lemons are
highly susceptible, while the
rootstocks like Sour orange, Trifoliate
orange and Rangpur lime are usually
considered as tolerant to gummosis.
Control measures include use of
resistant rootstocks, grafting as high
as possible from the ground level,
keeping the soil round the stem base
dry and use of copper fungicides. The Gummosis disease of Citrus
nursery should be kept free from
stagnant water. If the infection has not spread much on the tree, the affected
portion may be scrapped and disinfected with Mercuric chloride (0.1 %)
followed by an application of Bordeaux paste (1:2:20 water) on the affected
as well as healthy portion on the stem.

3.10.2.4 Virus Like Diseases

i) Greening : It is caused due to
mycoplasma like organism.
Leaves of infected trees show
102 chlorotic pattern similar to zinc Greening virus of Citrus
 deficiency. The leaves may be completely yellow or yellow with green Citrus
veins. Die back of branches and greening of fruit takes place. The disease
is spread through the vector Diaphornia citri. Use disease free bud wood
and spray against the vector citrus psylla to control this disease.
ii) Tristeza : Tristeza ‘a quick
decline’ is a widespread virus
through out the citrus growing
regions. The symptoms of tristeza
virus consist of two components:
the stem pitting and seedling
yellows. Stem pitting is indicated
by honey combing, development
of pitting of the inner face of the
bark of trunk. Presence of seedling
yellows is indicated by foliar
Tristesa virus of Citrus
chlorosis. The infected trees
shows absence of new growth, defoliation, root decay, stunted growth,
twig die back, leading to death of plant. It is transmitted by Toxoptera
citricidus. Use of tolerant rootstock such as sweet orange, Rangpur lime,
rough lemon, citranges. Use only disease free bud wood. Use of
insecticides against aphid vector to check the spread of the disease.
iii) Exocortis : It is caused due to viroids. Cracking and scaling of bark of
trifoliate, citranges and Rangpur lime rootstocks is noted. Epinasty and
curling of leaves, yellow blotches and cracks appears on shoots of some
citrus species. Trees show stunted growth.
The disease spreads through contaminated budding knives and also
through infected bud wood.
3.10.2.5 Citrus Nematode (Tylenchulus semipenetrans Cobb)
Nematodes are the key factors of declining of many citrus orchards. The
nematodes may affect the growth of citrus trees by injuring root bark, removing
plants nutrients during feeding, impairing normal growth and functioning of
roots and possibly injecting toxic material into the trees.
It can effectively be controlled by using chemicals. Soil application of
Carbofuran, Chlorpyriphos or Monocrotophos at 1000 ppm control citrus
nematodes. It can also be reduced by application of Neem, Mustard or Mahua
cakes as soil amendments.

3.11 PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDER

3.11.1 Citrus Decline
The decline in citrus is characterized by death of twig and small branches,
yellowing of the leaves, reduction in leaf size and poor yield. Affected trees
become unproductive. Citrus decline is a complex phenomenon brought about
by diverse factors, such as improper soil orchard management practices (graft
incompatibility, excessive intercropping, lack of fertilization, improper
103
Sub Tropical Fruits irrigation), soil conditions (soil
salinity, poor drainage and poor
physical conditions of the soil), micro
nutrients imbalance (deficiency of Zn,
Cu, Mn and Fe), pests (Citrus leaf
miner, aphid , psylla, fruit sucking
moth, lemon butterfly and mites),
diseases (gummosis, canker and pink
disease), viruses (tristeza,
xyloporosis, greening and porosis)
and nematodes (Tylenchulus
semipenetrans). Citrus decline physiological solution

Antibiotic treatments of the affected trees have shown promise but use of
disease free planting material is strongly advocated as the only definite means
of keeping the disease under check. The use of resistant rootstock like Rangpur
lime, trifoliate orange and citranges is recommended for tristeza control.

3.11.2 Granulation
In granulation, the juice sacs become
tough, enlarged nearly colourless and
tasteless. In granulated fruits, cell
walls of juice vesicles become thicker
than normal, pectic substances
increase and form gels, alcohol
insoluble fraction of juice vesicle increases, sugar, organic acid and
carotenoides decrease, whereas mineral constituents increase. Number of
viable seeds per fruit is considerably reduced in granulated fruits. Although
moisture content of the granulated vesicles is higher than normal. The water
gets bound in gels and therefore is not available as juice. Granulated vesicles
are rather tasteless because of low sugars and acid content. The exact cause
of the granulation is still remaining unknown. In India, sweet orange, like
Hemlin orange, mosambi, are prone to granulation and among mandarins,
Dancy is highly susceptible while kinnow show least susceptibility.
Following measures are effective for reducing the incidence of granulation
reducing. Spraying of 16 ppm 2,4-D on developing fruits, spraying a mixture
containing zinc, copper and potassium each at 0.25 per cent at monthly interval
are effective in controlling the incidence.

3.11.3 Fruit Drop

Fruit drop is a serious problem in citrus. Generally the trees bear large number
of flower and fruits, all of which they are unable to carry to maturity. It is a
common observation that not more than 7 to 8 per cent of the flowers develop
into mature fruits. First from the unfertilized flower drop it continues up to
pre harvest drop. The fruit drop is primarily due to the formation of an
abscission layer at the point of attachment of the fruit with the twig.
Excessive pre harvest drop can be checked by spraying the trees with 10 ppm
of 2,4-D in September about 2 months before harvesting. When the fruit
104
drop happens due to pathological cause, it can be checked by spraying the Citrus
trees with 20 ppm Auerofungin (35 g in 500 litre of water) or Bordeaux
mixture @ 2:2:250 in April, July, August and September.

3.12 HARVESTING
The citrus fruits should be harvested when they are fully ripe as they are non-
climacteric in nature. Citrus fruits develop their characteristics flavour and
aroma at fully ripe stage. A citrus fruit generally takes from six to twelve
months to mature. Harvesting times depends on the species and cultivars and
also on the agro climatic conditions. Limes and lemons are harvested when
fully developed but the skin remains green, however, these are considered to
be mature when the fruits contain a minimum of 25 per cent juice. TSS/acid
ratio is also considered to be a fairly a good index of maturity in most of the
citrus fruits.
Harvesting should b done by clipping from the tree. A sharp clipper or slightly
curved blunt shear is best suited for picking the fruits. The best means of
reaching high fruits is with a ladder. Fruit should be collected in a picking
bags carried over the pickers shoulders. Before storage or packing the fruits
should be properly cleaned and suitably graded.
The full grown sweet orange tree yields 500 to 1000 fruits. A healthy mandarin
tree is reported to yield 350 to 500 fruits, while a kagzi lime may produce
600 to 1500 fruits per year.

3.13 STORAGE
Citrus fruits can be stored well for a few days at room temperature, but cold
storage helps in extending the storage life to several months, without any
appreciable reduction in marketable quality. Cooling oranges immediately
after harvest (0 to 1.6°C for 16 hours) improves storage life.
The recommended storage condition of some citrus fruits is given below:
Table 6 : Storage conditions for some citrus fruit.

Name of crop Temperature Relative humidity Period

(°C) (%)
Orange -1 to 7 85 to 90 1 to 6 months
Mandarin 4 to 7 85 to 90 3 to 12 weeks
Grapefruit 10 to 15 85 to 90 3 to 13 weeks
Lemon (Green) 11 to 14 85 to 90 1 to 4 months
Lemon (Yellow) 0 to 10 85 to 90 3 to 6 weeks
Lime 8 to 10 85 to 90 3 to 8 weeks

3.14 PACKAGING
Now-a-days, most citrus fruits are packed in card board boxes holding 18 to
20 kg fruits. Fibre board cartons are also suitable packages for long distance 105
Sub Tropical Fruits transport through railways. In most parts of the country, citrus fruits are packed
in bamboo basket and wooden boxes.

3.15 TRANSPORTATION
For long distance the fruits are transport through railways and trucks, while
even for export purpose air services are taken. Railway wagons for
transplanting fruits should be well ventilated so as to neutralize the heat
generated by the fruits or absorbed due to radiation. In India, fruits packed in
bamboo baskets and wooden boxes are transported through road and rail.

3.16 PROCESSING
Citrus fruits can be utilized in a number of ways as salads, juices, squashes,
cocktails, syrup, concentrate, marmalades and pickles. The peel of thick rinded
citrus fruits can also be made into delicious candy. Orange, lemon, lime and
grapefruit juices are bottled and canned in large scale. The rind of citrus
fruits is rich in pectin and certain essential oils, which is used in flavouring
and in perfumery.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note : a) Space is given below for the answer.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
1. What are the main causes of citrus decline ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. What are the control measures of citrus leaf miner and gummosis ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
3. What are the processed products of citrus ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

3.17 LET US SUM UP

In the present unit, you have studied about the different species of citrus and
their commercial cultivars along with their area of cultivation and production.
106 You got knowledge about the planting and propagation methods, their
nutritional requirements, cultural practices which performed in the citrus Citrus
orchards, symptoms and control measures of different insect-pests, diseases
and physiological disorders. Get the information about the harvesting, storing,
packaging, transporting and processing of fruits. This units also have provided
knowledge about orchard management operations like care of young plants,
weeding, training and pruning, manuring and fertilization, irrigation, pest
and disease management for higher fruit production and better quality fruits.

3.18 KEY WORDS

Granulation : A disorder in citrus wherein the juice vesicles
becomes hardened greenish which causes
decrease in soluble solids, acids and
accumulation of polysaccharides and increase
in sodium, calcium and magnesium content.
Tristeza : Sad appearance of the tree caused by virus.
Fruit drop : Dropping of fruits at different stages of
development due to competition among the
growing fruitlets, lack of pollination and
fertilization, unfavourable environmental
conditions, hormonal imbalance etc.

3.19 FURTHER REFERENCES

1. Rajput, C.B.S and Babu, R.S.H. (1985). Citriculture, Kalyani Publishers,
New Delhi.
2. Randhawa, G.S. and Srivastava, K.C. (1986). Citriculture in India,
Hindustan Publishing Corporation, Delhi.
3. Singh, S., Krishnamurthy, S. and Katyal, S.L. (1967). Fruit Culture in
India, ICAR, New Delhi.

3.20 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. The main species of the mandarin group are Citrus reticulata (Blanco),
C. unshiu (Macrovitch), C. deliciosa (Tanore), C. tangerina hort (Tanaka),
C. reshni (Tanaka) and C. nobilis (Lourerio).
2. Citrus fruit are rich in vitamin C, minerals and many other substances.
The juice of ripe orange and mandarin contains 8 to 12 per cent sugars
and other soluble solids, 0.5 to 1.5 per cent citric acid, 25-80 mg ascorbic
acid per 100 g. Grapefruit and sour orange contains relatively less sugar
and more citric acid (1.5 to 3.0 %). In lemon and lime, the acid content
may go up to 6 and 8 per cent, respectively. The rind of citrus fruits is
rich in pectin and certain essential oils, which is used in flavouring and
in perfumery.
107
Sub Tropical Fruits 3. For edible purpose the following species are cultivated: Citrus sinensis,
C. reticulata, C. aurantium, C. limon, C. aurantifolia, C. grandis, C.
paradisi and Citrus medica.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Citrus decline is caused due to many reasons such as improper soil orchard
management practices (graft incompatibility, excessive intercropping, lack
of fertilization, improper irrigation), soil conditions (soil salinity, poor
drainage and poor physical conditions of the soil), micro nutrients
imbalance (deficiency of Zn, Cu, Mn and Fe), pests (Citrus leaf miner,
aphid, psylla, fruit sucking moth, lemon butterfly and mites), diseases
(gummosis, canker and pink disease), viruses (tristeza, xyloporosis,
greening and porosis) and nematodes (Tylenchulus semipenetrans).
2. Citrus leaf miner can be controlled by pruning of all affected parts during
winter. Weekly spray with systemic insecticides like Phosphomidon (0.03
%) or Monocrotophos (0.035 %) during emergence of new leaves has
been found to be highly beneficial whereas gummosis is controlled by
using resistant rootstocks, grafting as high as possible from the ground
level, keeping the soil round the stem base dry, use of copper fungicides.
The nursery should be kept free from stagnant water. If the infection has
not spread much on the tree, the affected portion may be scrapped and
disinfected with Mercuric chloride (0.1 %) followed by an application of
Bordeaux paste (1:2:20 water) on the affected as well as healthy portion
on the stem.
3. Marmalade, juice, candy, pickle, squash and nectars are major processed
products of citrus.

108
 Grape
UNIT 4 GRAPE (VITIS VINIFERA L.)
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Area and Production
4.3 Soil
4.4 Climate
4.5 Commercial Varieties
4.5.1 Seedless Cultivars
4.5.1.1 Beauty Seedless
4.5.1.2 Thompson Seedless
4.5.1.3 Pusa Seedless
4.5.1.4 Perlette
4.5.1.5 Delight
4.5.1.6 Himrod
4.5.2 Seeded Cultivars
4.5.2.1 Anab-e-Shahi
4.5.2.2 Bangalore Blue
4.5.2.3 Bhokri
4.5.2.4 Black Champa
4.5.2.5 Gulabi
4.5.2.6 Cheema Sahebi
4.5.2.7 Cardinal
4.5.3 Hybrids
4.5.3.1 Arkavati
4.5.3.2 Arka Kanchan
4.5.3.3 Arka Shyam
4.5.3.4 Arka Hans
4.6 Layout and Planting
4.6.1 Layout of Orchard and Preparation of Land
4.6.2 Planting
4.7 Propagation
4.7.1 Asexual Method of Propagation
4.7.1.1 Cutting
4.7.1.2 Layering
4.7.1.3 Grafting and Budding
4.7.1.4 Rootstocks
4.7.2 Sexual Method of Propagation/by Seed
4.8 Nutritional Requirements
109
Sub Tropical Fruits 4.9 Cultural Practices
4.9.1 Irrigation
4.9.2 Weed Control
4.9.3 Intercropping
4.9.4 Training and Pruning
4.9.4.1 Training
4.9.4.2 Pruning
4.9.5 Girdling
4.10 Insect-pests and Diseases
4.10.1 Insect-pests
4.10.1.1 Grapevine Thrips
4.10.1.2 Flea Beetle
4.10.1.3 Mealy Bug
4.10.1.4 Grape Leaf Roller
4.10.1.5 Chaffer Beetles
4.10.1.6 Nematodes
4.10.1.7 Scales
4.10.1.8 Birds
4.10.2 Diseases
4.10.2.1 Anthracnose
4.10.2.2 Powdery Mildew
4.10.2.3 Downy Mildew
4.10.2.4 Black rot
4.11 Physiological Disorders
4.11.1 Flower Bud, Flower and Berry Drop
4.11.2 Bud Failure or Poor Bud Burst
4.11.3 Bunch Wilting
4.11.4 Blossom-end Rot
4.11.5 Interveinal Chlorosis
4.12 Harvesting
4.13 Storage
4.14 Packaging
4.15 Transportation
4.16 Let Us Sum Up
4.17 Key Words
4.18 Further References
4.19 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

4.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be in a position to:
110 • explain the background and uses of grapes,
• discuss status of area and production of grapes in the world and country, Grape

• describe the soil, climatic and nutritional requirement,

• identify the seedless and seeded cultivars/hybrids,
• describe the planting, propagation and training methods, and
• describe various pests-diseases and physiological disorders.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) is the most important and widely grown deciduous
fruit crop on every continent. Grapes are being grown commercially in the
tropics. The history of grape culture is as old as that of human civilization.
The grape is believed to be introduced in India by the invaders from Iran and
Afghanistan about 1300 AD.
Grape belongs to the family Vitaecae. Grape
originated in Asia Minor, in the region
between South of Black and Caspian seas.
The family contains 12 genera and 600
species. It is considered as a sophisticated
fruit from the very old times to prepare drink,
wines and medicine. In European countries,
it is mainly cultivated for making wines. Ripe
fruits are supposed to be the best table fruit and are very easily digestible.
Fruits contain a large proportion of sugars and minerals. The grape juice is a
nourishing thirst quencher a stimulant to the kidneys and a laxative.

4.2 AREA AND PRODUCTION

The grape is grown in all the tropical countries of the world viz. India,
Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, Taiwan, South China, Australia, Brazil,
Columbia, Mexico, Kenya, West Indies, Nigeria, Zimbabwe etc. with an
annual production of 7,501,872 tonnes. In India, 90 % of grapes are being
produced in the tropical region of the peninsular states i.e. Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu. The area and production of
grape in the major growing states of the country is given in Table -1: The
annual production of the grape in the country is 1677.1 thousand mt from an
area of 64.4 thousand ha. Approximately 71 per cent of world grape production
is used for wine, 27 per cent as fresh fruit and 2 per cent as dried fruit.
Table 1 : Statewise area, production and productivity in total of Grape during 2017-18.

Sl. State Area Production Productivity

No. (000 ha.) (000 mt.) ha/mt
1 Maharashtra 105.50 2286.44 21.68
2 Karnataka 26.61 524.20 19.70
3 Mizoram 2.45 18.00 7.35
4 Tamil Nadu 2.16 58.93 27.28
5 Andhra Pradesh 0.80 15.92 19.70
111
Sub Tropical Fruits 6 Punjab 0.29 8.23 28.38
7 Telangana 0.35 5.27 15.06
8 Madhya Pradesh 0.09 1.28 14.22
9 Jammu & Kashmir 0.33 0.89 2.70
10 Other 0.35 0.94 2.67
Total 138.91 2920.09 158.94

4.3 SOIL
Grapevine has a strong root system and can be grown in a wide range of soils
from gravelly loam to heavy clays, from very shallow to very deep. However,
the best suited soil is well drained sandy loam containing good amount of
organic matter. The soils having low fertility status can be made suitable
with the application of heavy amount of well decomposed farmyard manure
and addition of other nutrients. High lands with good drainage and free
sunshine are suited for grapes. The soil should have also moderate water
holding capacity and porosity. Free drainage is essential for areas which
experience heavy rainfall during the early spring, the season for initiation of
root growth after winter dormancy. Grape thrives well under soil pH levels
of 6.5 - 7.5. Grape is moderately tolerant to salinity and alkalinity, but
excessive lime is harmful.

4.4 CLIMATE
The grape is sub-tropical fruit. However, it can be grown in temperate and
tropical climate zones. The climatic factors for grape cultivation may be
classified as sunlight, temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind flow etc. The
grapes require long, warm to hot dry summers at fruiting time and cool winters
at resting time. Under humid summer conditions, vines do not grow well as
they are susceptible to diseases. Grapes can tolerate high humidity better in
cool regions than in warmer areas. Bright sunny days help in the development
of sugar in the berries. However, at a very high temperature the skin becomes
thicker. The distribution of rain, rather than the total rainfall is most important.
Rainfall should not coincide with the fresh growth after pruning or during
fruit ripening. Rains or cloudy weather during blooming and fruit ripening
may result in poor berry set and poor quality of fruit. Rains at ripening may
cause considerable damage to the crop by berry splitting and bunch rotting.
High humidity and rains results in disease problems for vine and fruit. Frost,
if occurs in spring, may damage the sprouting buds. Similarly, hails during
the fruiting season may spoil the whole crop.
The vines remain dormant during winter in North India, while in South and
West India, the grapevine takes no rest, grows throughout the year, yield two
crops.

4.5 COMMERCIAL VARIETIES

There are about 10,000 named and well described cultivars of grapes
throughout the world, although there are a number of synonyms for the same
112 cultivar in different regions. In India, more than 1,000 cultivars are now grown
in different experimental stations, most of them being introduced from other Grape
countries. Apart from these introductions, certain varieties developed as a
result of selection or hybridization has been released for cultivation. You
will find a description of some of the important cultivars given below:

4.5.1 Seedless Cultivars

4.5.1.1 Beauty Seedless
The vine is medium in vigour. Berries bluish black, spherical, small size,
fairly sweet, flavour poor. It is esteemed for its productivity, earliness and
suitability for processing into juice. Although it has poor keeping quality, it
has proved acceptable to the trade as a table grape and is preferred next to
perlette in North India. It can be trained to head system and is highly to
moderately susceptible to diseases. It gives high yield in Northern states of
the country.
4.5.1.2 Thompson Seedless
It is originated in Asia minor. It is a table and raisin cultivar, which ripens
uniformly in the middle of June in North and February to April in South. The
vine is vigorous in growth and bears in 16 months after planting. Bunch is
medium large, long, conical to cylindrical, shouldered and compact. Berries
small, elongated yellowish green to golden yellow in colour. Eating and
keeping qualities are excellent. It is commercially grown in all the grape
growing areas of the world.
4.5.1.3 Pusa Seedless
It is a selection made at the IARI, New Delhi from unknown origin, but it
resembles Thompson Seedless in many characters. The vine is vigorous and
medium yielder. Berries greenish white, slightly more elongated, pulp very
sweet, keeping quality is good. Apart from table purpose, good raisins can
also be prepared.
4.5.1.4 Perlette
A hybrid between “Scolokertekhiralynoje” x “Sultanina Marble” which was
developed by Dr. H. P. Olmo at University of California, USA. It perform
well in North and Western India. It is one of the earliest maturing cultivar,
which bears heavily. Bunches small to medium, long, conical, compact with
medium-sized, spherical, whitish green transluscent berries, flesh soft, muscat
- flavoured, TSS 18-20 per cent, good keeping quality.
4.5.1.5 Delight
This cultivar is a sister seedling of perlette. This very early ripening cultivar
has been found to perform well in Punjab and Haryana. The bunch is medium
in size, compact, conical and attractive with green, small and almost round
berries having muscat-like flavour. It has good eating and shipping quality.
4.5.1.6 Himrod
A recent introduction to India, but performing well in Punjab, Haryana and
Uttar Pradesh. Vine is vigorous and heavy yielder. Bunches are attractive, 113
Sub Tropical Fruits medium large, shouldered and well filled with yellow-green berries of
excellent quality. The skin is thick and tough. This cultivar is reported to be
resistant to a number of pests and diseases.
Some other well known seedless grape cultivars are Kishmish Beli, Kishmish
Churni, Seedless White Round.

4.5.2 Seeded Cultivars

4.5.2.1 Anab-e-Shahi
It was introduced in Hyderabad from the middle east in 1890 and was
extensively grown in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, but it is being replaced
by “Thompson Seedless” due to seedlessness and superior fruit quality. The
bunch is medium to large in size, and are moderately compact. The berry is
oval in shape. It is amber in colour. Keeping quality is good. It is resistant to
cercospora and fruit rot. The vine bears in 20 to 24 months after planting. It
has been acclaimed as one of the most productive cultivar grown in India and
yielded over 30/tons/acre/year.
4.5.2.2 Bangalore Blue
Bangalore blue is an important
cultivar of Karnataka where it gives
more than one crop in a year. This
variety is supposed to be a hybrid of
vinifera and labrusca species. It does
well on bower and kniffin systems of
training. The taste is very acidic and
flavor foxy. Apart from its use for table
purpose, it is being used for juice and
wine. Bunches are small, well filled
with small to medium sized berries. It
is susceptible to cracking and rotting
during rains.
4.5.2.3 Bhokri
It is one of the leading cultivar of Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra. It is a vigorous
and high yielding cultivar with large, compact, usually shouldered bunches.
It does well on bower as well as on trellis systems of training. The berries
are green, medium in size, oval with soft pulp. Ripening is late but uniform,
however, berries crack with rain and its keeping quality is poor.
4.5.2.4 Black Champa
A selection made from introductions at IIHR, Bangalore, suitable for table,
juice and red dessert wine purposes. The vines are vigorous in growth and
high yielding. Bunches are small, well filled with small to medium berries,
spherical in shape and black in colour, quality excellent with 25-27 per cent
TSS. Its keeping quality is also good, but it tends to crack and rot during
rains.

114
4.5.2.5 Gulabi Grape

It is also known as Karachi, Paneer Draksha and Muscat. It resembles Muscat

Hamburg of Australia. The vine is medium in vigour and yields high. Bunches
are small and loose with deep purple, spherical and small sized berries. The
berry skin is thick and shipping quality is good. The fruit ripens early and
uniformly with Muscat flavour.
4.5.2.6 Cheema Sahebi
This is vigorous growing, high yielding variety was selected by Dr. G. S.
Cheema from the open pollinated seedlings of “Pandhari Sahebi”. Earlier it
was known as Selection-7, mainly grown in Maharashtra. Bunches are large,
conical, shouldered with medium to large, oval, pale coloured berries. This
late ripening cultivar has good shipping quality.
4.5.2.7 Cardinal
This very early red table grape was evolved as a result of crossing between
Tokay and Ribier which is performing well in the irrigated regions of North
India. The vine is medium in vigour. Clusters are attractive, medium to large,
loose and conical with large, bright red and spherical berries. The colour
changes to reddish black as ripening proceeds.

4.5.3 Hybrids
4.5.3.1 Arkavati
It is cross of “Black Champa” x “Thompson Seedless”. The vines are
vigorously growing. The bunch is long conical to cylindrical, berries medium,
spherical to ellipsoidal, yellowish green. Berries are almost seedless. This
hybrid is suitable for raisin making. Juice percentage is 70-74.
4.5.3.2 Arka Kanchan
A hybrid between “Anab-e-Shahi” x “Queen of the Vineyard”. The vines are
vigorously growing. The bunch is medium to large, conical, berries large,
golden yellow, ellipsoidal to obovoid. It is a seeded hybrid. Juice percentage
is about 60-65.
4.5.3.3 Arka Shyam
A cross of “Bangalore Blue” x “Black Champa”. The vines are moderately
vigorous. The bunch is medium, cylindrical. Berries are medium large,
shinning black, spherical to obovid, seeded, juice 60-72 per cent, yield
potential is high.
4.5.3.4 Arka Hans
It is developed by crossing “Bangalore Blue” x “Anab-e-Shahi”. The vines
are vigorous. Bunch is well filled, cylindrical. Berries medium large, yellowish
green, spherical to ellipsoidal. It is a seeded hybrid. Juice content is 68-70
per cent. Unlike “Anab-e-Shahi” it also produces fruits on head system of
training.
115
Sub Tropical Fruits
4.6 LAYOUT AND PLANTING
4.6.1 Layout of Orchard and Preparation of Land
While selecting a site for planting a vineyard, the factors like vicinity to the
market, road, railway station, storage facility, processing industry etc. need
special consideration. The grape is highly perishable fruit and cannot be stored
long or transported to distant markets. A proper layout of a vineyard is very
important, because any mistake done cannot be corrected afterwards. It is
advisable to prepare a sketch plan on a graph paper indicating the plants,
rows, pillars, channels etc. Wind breaks should be planted to protect the vines
from hot desiccating winds that blow over the plains of North India during
May - June.

4.6.2 Planting
Planting should not be taken up unless the layout and bower erection are
complete. On well cultivated and weed free land the pits are dug 75 -100 cm3
in size. While digging the pits, the top half depth soil is separately heaped
which will be utilized later for filling the pits. The pits are allowed to remain
open and subject to weathering for 3 - 4 weeks. The pits are then filled with
1:1 mixture of top soil and farmyard or organic manure, 3 kg bon-meal, 5 kg
neem cake, 1-3 kg super phosphate and 500 g sulphate of potash may also be
added. 30 g Aldrin (5 %) is also thoroughly mixed with the soil as protection
against termites. The soil is then allowed to settle by giving irrigation.
Time of planting will depend on the prevailing weather conditions. Under
semi tropical conditions where winter rainfall or easy irrigation is available,
planting may be done during October - January. But under subtropical and
temperate climates, the planting starts from January - February. One year old
rooted cutting are planted. In the middle of the pit a hole is made to spread
the roots and soil is pressed firmly and gently. The vines are irrigated lightly
right after planting. In order to ensure better establishment healthy, disease
free, plants are planted and top of the plant is pruned leaving 2-3 buds. A
basin is prepared around each newly planted vine which is connected with
irrigation channel. As the plants starts growing, they can be trained on any of
the training systems.
The spacing varies with the cultivars. The commonly followed spacing is 4.5
x 4.5 m for “Anab-e-Shahi”, 7.2 x 3.6 m for “Bangalore Blue” and 3.0 x 3.0
m for “Thompson Seedless” or “Pusa Seedless”.

4.7 PROPAGATION
Grapevines are propagated by Asexual method of propagation and sexual
method of propagation. Asexual method of propagation is also known as
vegetative method of propagation and it take place by stem cuttings, layering,
budding and grafting. Sexual method of propagation is by seeds.

4.7.1 Asexual Method of Propagation

116 It is commercial method of grape propagation on large scale. It take place by:
4.7.1.1 Cutting Grape

The grape is mainly propagated by stem cuttings. Hard wood cuttings give
higher success than semi hard and soft wood cuttings under ordinary
conditions. The stem cuttings are made from one year old wood (canes), at
the time of pruning, when the vines are dormant. After discarding the very
basal portion of stem, about 20-30 cm long, medium thickness cuttings are
prepared by giving lower end is cut immediately below a bud, while the
upper cut at 0.75 to 2.0 cm above the bud. It is essential that each cutting
should have at least 3 to 4 buds. It is always advisable, to select high yielding,
disease and pest free vines for preparing cuttings. Cuttings are prepared, in
well prepared nursery beds, at 30 cm distance between cuttings and 100 cm
between rows. Cuttings are planted bit deep in the soil, in such a way that
one bud is left above the ground. Rooting success in cuttings may go upto 95
per cent or so, under favourable conditions. Rooted cuttings are ready for
planting in 90 days.
4.7.1.2 Layering
Grape cultivars, which are difficult to root on cuttings can be propagated by
simple, trench and mound layering.
4.7.1.3 Grafting and Budding
These methods are also quite common in grapevine propagation, when the
benefits of a particular rootstock are wanted to be exploited. Bench grafting
is widely used in grapes. Scions are grafted on either rooted or unrooted
cuttings by whip grafting method, which is usually done in late winter or
early spring. T-budding and chip budding, are also popular in grapes.
4.7.1.4 Rootstock
In India, normally the vines grow well on their own roots. However, for
some problems, such as phylloxera, nematodes, salinity etc. suitable rootstocks
should be selected. The following rootstocks are generally used for grafting
or budding:
i) St. George : A variety of V. rupestris, vigorous, phylloxera-resistant,
drought tolerant, suitable for shallow non-irrigated soils, susceptible to
rootknot nematode.
ii) Ganzin No.1 : Highly productive, phylloxera-resistant, suitable for fertile,
irrigated soils, susceptible to rootknot nematode.
iii) Harmony : A cross between “Dog Ridge” seedling and a “1613” seedling.
Vigorous, resistant to phylloxera and nematode. Cuttings root easily.
iv) Freedom : A sister seedling of “Harmony”, very vigorous, resistant to
phylloxera and nematode, cuttings root easily and uniformly. It is
recommended where high vigour is desired.
v) Dog Ridge and Salt Creek : Closely related varieties of V. champini,
resistant to phylloxera and rootknot nematode, extremely vigorous,
suitable for low fertility and sandy soils, cuttings are difficult to root.
117
Sub Tropical Fruits These stocks are recommended for rasin and wine grape vineyards in sandy
soils.

4.7.2 Sexual Method of Propagation/by Seed

This method generally used to breed new varieties / hybrids by cross
pollination. Fresh seeds harvested from the ripen fruits develop by cross
pollination. These Freshly harvested seeds are stratified at a temperature
between 0.5 to 4°C for about 12 weeks to break dormancy and to get higher
and uniform germination.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: a) Space is given below for the answer.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
1. What are different uses of grapes ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. What are the main hybrids of grapes ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
3. Which is the best method of propagation of grapes ?
............................................................................................................
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4.8 NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS

The grapevine removes an appreciable quantity of nutrients, from the soil. It
has been estimated that an average crop of grape removes from the soil 40-
60 kg N, 10-15 kg P and 50-70 kg K per hectare. To maintain the soil fertility
for consistent yield, it becomes necessary to replenish these nutrients in the
form of manures and fertilizers, which may be applied annually to the soil, in
addition to that already applied to the pits before planting.
The fertilizer requirement, of a vineyard is influenced by several factors,
such as the fertility status and other characteristics of the soil, plant age,
vigour and yield potential, climate of the place and the vineyard management.
Therefore, the recommendations made for a region, may not hold good for
another region, with different climatic conditions. In general, for 3 to 5 year
old vines, application of 500 kg N + 125 kg P2O5 + 750 kg K2O/ha/year has
118
been suggested. For vines above five years of age, application of 500 kg N + Grape
500 kg P2O5 + 1000 K2O/ha/year has been suggested. These recommendations
are for a vine population of 750/ha (4.5 m x 3 m). The fertilizers are to be
applied in split doses - after April pruning, 60 per cent N, 50 per cent P and
after October pruning 40 per cent N, 50 per cent P and 50 per cent K should
be applied, the rest 50 per cent should be applied at fruit set. For younger
plants, the above mentioned doses are to be reduced in proportion of age.
The FYM may be applied in January at the time of pruning. Half of the
nitrogen and potash, and the entire amount of phosphorous, should be applied
immediately after pruning in February. The remaining half of nitrogen and
potash are to be applied, just after berry set.
The grapevine has a deep, widespread root system. The active feeding zone
has been found in the range of 30 - 40 cm deep. Therefore, at the initial stage,
the vine mainly absorbs nutrients applied in the pits before planting. In the
subsequent years, fertilizers are applied at a distance of 30 cm from the trunk
and 15 cm deep, which is properly mixed. Fertilizers can be applied through
foliar application, which is quite efficient and rapid, since the fertilizers are
absorbed by the leaves quite rapidly and efficiently. The micronutrients are
mostly applied by this method.

4.9 CULTURAL PRACTICES

The following cultural practices are essential for grape orchard.

4.9.1 Irrigation
Grape is a drought tolerant fruit crop, as compared to other fruit crops.
However, for profitable production, there should be arrangements for adequate
supply of water to the vineyard as and when, it is needed. Grapevine should
be irrigated after pruning and fertilization. Early vegetative period after
transplanting, requires copious watering for adequate and fast vegetative
growth, particularly during the dry and warm period. But the plants will require
judicious irrigation once they enter bearing stage. It is very essential to irrigate
grapevine at an interval of 5 - 7 days until the berries attain pea size and
thereafter irrigation is given at 10 days interval till maturity. It is advisable
not to irrigate grapevine 25 - 30 days before harvesting of berries as during
this stage quality will be affected adversely. Excessive moisture at this stage
can cause splitting of berries and subsequent rotting. Irrigation to vines after
harvest is as important as during the active growth period. In order, to maintain
sufficient moisture in the soil, irrigation should be applied up to October at
an appropriate interval depending upon the distribution of rains.

4.9.2 Weed Control

Weed control in vineyard is as important as manuring or irrigation, since
weeds compete with grapes for nutrients, moisture and light besides acting
as a secondary host for many pests and diseases. Weeds may be controlled by
cultivation around and between growing plants. Spring is the best time for
cultivation. Now-a-days, two pre-emergence herbicides namely Simazine and
Diuron, are being used to control annual weeds in vineyards. 2,4 - D can also
be used in controlling the weeds. 119
Sub Tropical Fruits 4.9.3 Intercropping
Actually no intercrop should be sown in vineyards as it comes into bearing
one year after planting and commercial crops starts after 2 - 3 years of planting.
Apart from this, the distance between vines is 3 x 3 meters and as such much
space is not left between the plants for growing of intercrops. Another factor
is that almost entire plantations are trained on bower system of training. This
structure with the spread of grapevines on it causes partial to complete shading
in the 3rd year. Also the grapevine is a shallow rooted crop, therefore, root
injury is quite possible in case of deep ploughing. But now-a-days intercrops
like radish, cucurbits, okra, brinjal, cabbage and potato can be grown for the
first two to three year after planting the vine yards.

4.9.4 Training and Pruning

4.9.4.1 Training
Training is one of the most important and regular post planting operations in
grapevines, to induce proper shape, desired growth and fruiting, with respect
to quantity and quality. Initial training consists of removal of undesired shoots
for development of straight and healthy trunk, pinching and tying to encourage
bushy crown or vigorous framework, as well as dispersed canes, and bending
the canes for bud differentiation. By nature, a grapevine is a robust climber
but it can be trained to any fashion. Although there are numerous forms of
training system, but in India, the most widely adapted systems are head, kniffin,
trellis and bower. A brief description of the systems is given below:
i) Head System : This is the least expensive method of training of grapes,
and is considered most suitable for less vigorous cultivars. Single shoot
is allowed to grow along support, other shoots are removed. It diverts all
the energies of the vine into one single shoot which will form the
permanent trunk. The shoot is tied loosely to the support with a piece of
jute. When the vine is about one metre in height, it is cut back to produce
side shoots. Two lateral branches are encouraged to grow and the plant is
topped again at 1.3 metre height and two more lateral branches are allowed
to grow. Thus four lateral branches are allowed to grow in all directions,
and all other shoots are removed. Fruiting canes develop on these laterals.
After 3 - 4 years, the vine becomes a dwarf bush and does not need any
support.
ii) Bower System : This system is also known as arbour, pergola or pandal.
It is very expensive and very popular in North as well as in South India.
The vines are spread over a criss-cross network of wires, usually 2 - 2.5
metres above the ground, supported by pillars (made of concrete, iron or
stone) and arms of angle iron. The holes are drilled in the angle iron at a
distance of 60 cm to create a criss-cross network of wires. The vine is
allowed to grow as single stem. All lateral branches are removed. As
soon as the main shoot reaches the bower, it is pinched so that lateral
branches form. Two strong lateral branches are allowed to grow as primary
arms. From these, secondary arms are allowed to develop at 50 - 60 cm
apart. On secondary arms, tertiary arms are allowed to develop at 15 - 20
120 cm apart. These tertiary arms are pruned to 2 - 3 buds in the following
 season. The new shoots arising from those spurs will provide the fruiting. Grape
The vigorous varieties like “Anab-e-Shahi” and “Bhokri” are most suitable
for this system.
iii) Kniffin System : The kniffin system, as developed by Mr. William Kniffin
of New York in 1850, is a four cane system. This system is not as popular
or common as bower system in India. In this system, a trellis of two wires
is strung from vertical posts. The lower wire is placed one meter above
the ground and the upper wire half a meter above the lower wire. The
single stemmed vine is allowed to grow forming two arms either side of
the trunk at lower wire and two arms at upper wire. The pruning of a
kniffin vine consists in cutting back, the canes to 6 - 8 buds. The bearing
shoots are allowed to hang freely, no tying being necessary. The main
trunk is tied to each wire and the canes are tied along the wires. “Thompson
Seedless” “Bhokri”and “Kandhari” cultivars are suitable for kniffin system
of training.
iv) Telephone Trellis System : This is also known as Overhead trellis system.
This system is sometimes considered better than Kniffin system where
the lower arms are less productive. This system is an improvement over
bower system in respect of ventilation and light penetration. It is relatively
less expensive than bower, but more expensive than kniffin system.
However, this is not very popular with the grape growers in India. In this
system , the vines are allowed to grow straight up to a height of 1.5 - 1.6
m and then trained on overhead 3 - 4 wires (45 - 60 cm apart) fixed to
cross angle arms supported by vertical pillar or post. The usual spacing
for each vine is 3 x 3 m.
While training the vines by any of the above systems, it should be kept in
mind that the vine should develop the whole structure (primary, secondary
and tertiary branches) slowly over a period of several years, otherwise the
arms become unproductive and will produce fruiting wood at the apical ends
only.
4.9.4.2 Pruning
Pruning refers to the judicious removal of any plant part to establish and
maintain a desired vine shape, to increase productivity, to distribute proper
amount of bearing wood over the vine, to regulate the crop for maintaining
the vitality of the vine for consistent productivity and to facilitate various
cultural operations. Training determines the form, while pruning affects the
functioning of the vine. It is done to concentrate the activity of the vine in the
parts left after pruning, and to induce sprouting of the fruit buds located in
the middle portion of the canes, which otherwise could not sprout.
The pruning of grapes consists of thinning out and heading back. All matures
current season’s canes are pruned to a certain level depending upon the bearing
zone of the variety e.g. “Anab-e-Shahi” and “Bhokri” are pruned to 5 bud
level, “Thompson Seedless” to 10 buds, “Bangalore Blue” to 4 buds and
“Gulabi” to 9 buds. Normally, more number of buds is retained on thicker
canes and less on thinner ones. All over crowded, diseased and damaged
canes are completely thinned out. The extent of thinning out or the number
121
Sub Tropical Fruits of fruiting spurs/cane to be retained after pruning largely depends on the
health and vigor of the vine, the system of training, space provided for each
vine, fertility of the soil and desired fruit quality.
Pruning is normally done once in North India during the month of January,
but in South India, pruning is done twice a year, once in summer and again in
winter. Grapevines in South and Western India grow continuously without
any dormancy. Summer pruning is done during March - April in Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra and in June in Tamil Nadu. This is called
back or growth pruning. The winter pruning is done in September - October
in Southern states except Tamil Nadu where it is done in December.

4.9.5 Girdling
Girdling is also known as ringing, is an old practice which consists of removing
a complete ring of bark from any part of the vine (trunk, arm fruiting cane or
spur). Girdling the trunk affects the entire vine, whereas girdling a cane affects
only part of the cane above the girdle. Girdling interrupt the normal movement
of food materials so that the level of carbohydrates and plant hormones
increase the parts above the wound. The time of girdling varies depending
upon the objective of girdling. To improve the set of berries, girdling should
be done a week before bloom, while to increase berry size, it should be done
just after berry set. Good care in cultivation, particularly in manuring and
irrigation, has to be taken for girdled vines. Over cropping of girdled vines is
to be avoided, which may be achieved by proper pruning and thinning.

4.10 INSECT-PESTS AND DISEASES

4.10.1 Insect-pests
4.10.1.1 Grapevine Thrips (Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus Hood)
Small grey to greenish insects, suck sap from the mature leaves, and form
small colonies on the leaves. The thrips infested leaves exhibit brown irregular
necrotic areas with dots of dipper colour. Thus the gross photosynthetic areas
are reduced and the vines become weak. Tender shoots and fruits also be
affected and growth may be checked and leaves wither and fall from the
vines due to thrips under severe attack.
Application of systematic insecticides like Rogor or Metasystox (0.1 %) at
pre-bloom and at post fruit set period is advised. Some tolerant varieties like
“Thompson Seedless”, “Pusa Seedless” etc may be selected in thrip prone
areas.
4.10.1.2 Flea Beetle (Scelodanta strigicolles)
This pest incidence is noticed immediately after pruning and most prevalent
in October. The adults and nymphs feed on sprouting buds and new growth
by cutting holes and scrapping the leaf surface.
The insect is controlled by the application of Malathion (50 EC) 500 ml or
Carbaryl (50 WP) 1.5 kg dissolved in 500 litre of water is recommended.
122
4.10.1.3 Mealy Bug (Pseudococcus carymbaties) Grape

These soft bodied insects are polyphagous in their feeding habit. They suck
sap from all plant parts during various stages of their development, particularly
during flowering, the excreta of the insect falling on honey dew favours the
growth of shooty moulds, affecting photosynthesis and weakening the infected
plants.
Foliar spray of Dichlorovos (0.15 %) plus fish oil rosin soap (2.5 %) or
Phosphomidon (0.03 %) is effective to control the insects.
4.10.1.4 Grape Leaf Roller (Sylepta lunalis Guence)
It is a serious insect of grapevine during August-September. A female lays
100 to 150 eggs, usually on ventral surface of leaves. On hatching, the young
caterpillars feed on the epidermis of leaves and skeletonise the same. Later,
these caterpillars roll the leaves and feed within. Pupation takes place within
rolled leaves. Generally each leaf roll contains only one caterpillar. The activity
of the pest is accelerated with the onset of monsoon and continues till October.
In the initial stage of attack, remove the rolled up leaves and destroy the
same with larvae pupae within. Dust 1 per cent Parathion 20-25 kg/ha. Spray
Malathion 50 EC at 0.05 per cent (one part of Malathion 50 EC in 1000 parts
water)
4.10.1.5 Chaffer beetles (Adoratus spp.)
It occurs mostly during the monsoon season. The beetles come out at night
and feed voraciously on young shoots and leaves leaving only the vines.
Remove the weeds from the vineyards. Stomach poisons are most effective
to control the beetles. Spray with Monocrotophos at 0.05 per cent is effective.
Dusting of leaves at 2-3 times at an interval of fortnight with 10 per cent
Aldrin is also effective.
4.10.1.6 Nematodes
Grapevines are harmed by several types of nematodes viz. root nematode
(Meloidogyne sp.), reniform (Rotylenohus sp.), dagger nematode (Xiphinema
sp.), spiral nematode (Helicotylenchulus sp.) and stunt nematode
(Tylenchorhynchus sp.). Nematodes damage the vines by direct infestation
and by transmitting curling virus. Nematode is a serious problem under heavy
soil having near neutral pH. Nematode attack causes yellowing of leaves,
defoilation and loss of yield up to 30 per cent.
Resistant varieties may be used as rootstock. Nematicides like DBCP @ 33.69
litres per hectare should be added into the soil. Even soil application of 6 kg
of Carbofuran controls the root knot nematodes.
4.10.1.7 Scales
At least thirteen species of scale insects attack grapes. The scale insects suck
sap from the shoots which dry up. Leaves turn yellow and growth stops.
Remove of loose bark after pruning and spraying with 0.2 per cent Malathion
is suggested. The spray may be repeated. 123
Sub Tropical Fruits 4.10.1.8 Birds
Number of birds causes a considerable damage to grapes. They eat berries
and damage them. Damaged berries rot quickly.
Cover the vines with nylon net. Produce high sound by beating tins/drums,
also use crackers.

4.10.2 Diseases
4.10.2.1 Anthracnose (Elsinoe ampelina)
This disease is caused due to fungus. All plants parts are affected and cankers
are produced on the shoots, stem, leaf veins and berries. Dark spots are seen
on shoots, and they enlarge into sunken cankers. As cankers coalesce, stems
are girdled or killed. On foliage the spots are grey with dark or purple border.
With time affected leaves become shot holed and tattered. Slightly sunken
brown spots, sometimes with grey centres develop on immature berries. Later,
affected berries dry and wrinkle. Monsoon and low temperature are very
favourable for this disease.
To control the disease remove all the affected parts viz. mummified berry
clusters, tendrils, canes, old loose bark and burn them. Spray the vines with
0.2 per cent Copper oxychloride. Spray the vineyards with 0.2 per cent Benlate
or Bavistin after leaf emergence. The spray may be repeated four times at an
interval of 15 days during the rainy season.
4.10.2.2 Powdery Mildew (Uncinula necator)
This disease is favoured by cool weather. The disease develops more
abundantly in shade or diffused light than in bright light. The fungus may
attack leaves, tender shoots and fruits. Whitish patches of cobweb like growth
are first noticed on the surface of green parts of the vine, which later become
greyish powdery in appearance, due to presence of numerous spores. Severely
affected leaves become distorted and discoloured which ultimately drop off.
Infected berries don’t ripen properly, become hard and develop cracks. Infected
flowers do not set fruits.
Spraying of Wettable sulphur (0.2 %) or dusting of Sulphur at an interval of
5-7 days before the infection occurs. Spraying with 0.1 per cent Karathane
has been also found effective in controlling powdery mildew.
4.10.2.3 Downy Mildew (Plasmopara viticola)
It is a disease of grapes in peninsular India and all varieties of vinifera grapes
are susceptible. Cool humid weather favours the spread of downy mildew.
The fungus infects leaves, flowers and young berries. Light yellow translucent
sports appear on the upper leaf surface. Later on, white patches of mould
develop on the lower surface of the leaf. Severely affected leaves finally dry
and drop form the vine. Succulent shoots, petioles and tendrils have a water
soaked appearance. In severe cases, flower and young fruits are also affected
and killed, which drop off. At later stages the berries wither, turn brown, and
then shrivel and shatter easily from the bunch.
124
Spraying of 1.0 per cent Bordeaux mixture (4:4:100) at an interval of 6-7 Grape
days is recommended. Other fungicides like Zineb, Mancozeb and Captan
also has been proved effective.
4.10.2.4 Black Rot (Guignardia bidwellii)
Black rot is most prevalent in areas having hot, moist weather during the
growing season. Black rot may attack all green parts of the vine and is
particularly destructive to the fruit. It produces reddish brown irregular spots
on the foliage. On the shoots, tendrils, clusters, stems, petioles, it produces
small, elliptical dark coloured cankers. The affected berries shrivel and dry
and become hard.
Bordeaux mixture has been found effective in controlling black rot.

4.11 PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS

The physiological disorders which are quite common are:

4.11.1 Flower Bud, Flower and Berry Drop

This problem is quite serious in North India. Flower bud, flower and
subsequent berries drops and makes the bunches loose and such bunches
fetch low price. Reduction in yield due to flower bud, flower and fruit drop
may be considerable. The factors responsible for this disorder are high
temperature, heavy rains, improper fertilization, water stress, heavy crop load,
endogenous auxin deficiency at a particular stage of berry development etc.
Control measures to this problem include making 0.5 cm wide girdle on the
trunk about 10 days before full bloom, judicious application of fertilizers
especially nitrogen, dipping the bunches in NAA containing formulations or
spraying with NAA and regular and uniform irrigation.

4.11.2 Bud Failure or Poor Bud Burst

It is a common phenomenon in “Thompson Seedless” in peninsular India,
after October pruning. Absence of chilling temperature is considered to be
the primary reason for this disorder. Even on a mature cane, 40 per cent buds
may fail to sprout. Fruit bud differentiation is also poor. Good cultural practices
may lessen the severity of the problem.

4.11.3 Bunch Wilting

This disorder mostly occurring at ripening stage is quite common in South,
as well as in North India. The main symptoms are shriveling of rachis and
drying of berries, at the tip of the bunch. This disorder is attributed to moisture
stress condition, coupled with high temperature. This malady can be checked
by accerlating sugar translocation to bunch. Spraying of 0.2 per cent Boric
acid has been proved effective in reducing bunch wilting.

4.11.4 Blossom-end Rot

A black sunken spot develops at the blossom end of the berry, which later on
spreads with water soaked region around it. Defective calcium nutrition and
125
Sub Tropical Fruits assimilation appear to be the cause for it. Spray of 1.0 per cent calcium nitrate
may correct this disorder.

4.11.5 Interveinal Chlorosis

Occurrence of interveinal chlorosis is quite common in grapes, when the
area between veins become yellowish. In severe cases, the leaf tips dry up. It
is mainly due to deficiency of magnesium, zinc or iron. It can be corrected by
spraying the vines with 0.2 per cent MgSO4, ZnSO4 and FeSO4. Two to three
sprayings at an interval of 20-30 days are recommended. Magnesium
deficiency is aggravated by excessive application of potassium. High salinity
may also cause marginal and interveinal chlorosis.

4.12 HARVESTING
Grape is a non-climacteric fruit. Therefore, harvesting is only done when
berries are fully ripe on the vine. Grapes after harvesting do not improve in
their quality. The best stage of development of harvesting of table grapes are
attractiveness in appearance and eating quality, good shipping and keeping
quality and availability, when prices are favourable. There are many harvesting
indices such as berry size, pH, sugar-acid ratio etc. In general, ripening is
indicated by an increase in sugars, a decrease in acidity and the development
of colour, texture and aroma characteristic of a variety. Moreover, as the
berries mature, the cluster stem changes from green to brown, straw or yellow
colour. The most accepted criterion for maturity, however, is the brix-acid
ratio, characteristic of a variety.
The cluster or bunch should be removed from the vine by cutting with a
sharp knife near its attachment to the cane. The harvesting should be done
during the cool hours of the day i.e. early morning or late evening. A properly
maintained vineyard usually starts yielding after three years in North India. A
yield of 15-20 tonnes/ha was taken from fully grown orchard and even yielded
upto 60 tonnes/ha, in a well maintained vineyard of “Anab-e-Shahi” in South
India.

4.13 STORAGE
After harvesting, and before packing and storing, undesirable berries viz.
loose, diseased, overripe, dried, cracked, injured etc. are removed from
bunches by hand. Any portion of bunch found undesirable it is trimmed
otherwise it will spoil other bunch in the lot. Under ordinary conditions grapes
can easily be stored for 4-5 days. This duration can be increased to 40-45
days, if they are stored under cold storage conditions. Further storage life of
grapes is prolonged in cold storage with the use of sulphur dioxide releasing
paper impregnated with potassium bisulphate, which is kept at the top of the
box. The SO2 is released from papers in cold storage (36-38°F) and 85 per
cent relative humidity. The grapes stored under such treatment are kept for
60 days or so but the cold stored grapes should be consumed within 24 hours
after removal from cold storage, otherwise they get spoiled, if kept under
ordinary conditions.
126
 Grape
4.14 PACKAGING
The place of packing the type of container and the arrangements of bunches
in the container, play an important role in marketing of grapes and retention
of quality. After sorting of bunches and berries from the bunch, the healthy
bunches are graded and ready for packing. Table grapes should be packed at
a place that makes possible minimum handlings and limited exposure to
high temperature. Packing may be done in the vineyards or in a specially
equipped packing shed. In India, grapes are harvested in baskets and brought
to packing sheds, trimmed carefully and packed in bamboo basket (8-20 kg),
wooden boxes (4 kg), and more recently in corrugated fibre board cartons (4
and 2 kg). Fibre board cartons of 4 kg capacity have become more popular
and are used widely in recent years.

4.15 TRANSPORTATION
In India, grapes are mostly transported to a 500 km by road. To the distant
markets it is mostly sent by rail. Now-a-days, consignment is also dispatched
by air to retain quality and to fetch good price. Export to foreign countries is
done by air only. However, due to lack of refrigerated transport and slow
movement, the loss during transit is huge and 25-30 per cent of the
consignment may suffer damages and ultimately may be lost.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note : a) Space is given below for the answer.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
1. Define trellis system of training in grapes.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. In which regions of the country grapes are pruned once and twice in
a year ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
3. Define bunch wilting in grapes.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

127
Sub Tropical Fruits
4.16 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we have studied about the grape cultivation, its uses, history,
propagation method, pruning and cutting, training system and various
physiological disorder in grape cultivation pests and diseases, harvesting and
storage. Grape is a subtropical crop, however it can be grown in tropical and
dry temperate zone of Ladakh region. Maharashtra has the largest production
areas of grapes in the country. Well drained sandy loam soil is good for its
cultivation. Pruning should be practiced when the vines become dormant.
Being a non-climacteric fruit, grapes should be harvested when the berries
are fully ripe.

4.17 KEY WORDS

Girdling : Removing a complete ring of bark from any
part of the vine.
Kniffin : A system of training grapevine, in which a
trellis of two wires is strung from vertical posts
in which the lower wire is placed one meter
above the ground and the upper wire half a
meter above the lower wire.
Bower : A system of training grapevine in which the
vine is pinched off after reaching the wire
network and two vigorous shoots in opposite
direction are selected as primary arms.

4.18 FURTHER REFERENCES

1. Jindal, P.C. (1985). Grape In Fruits of India-Tropical and Sub-
Tropicals (ed. T.K.Bose). Naya Prokash, Calcutta.
2. Khanduja, S.D. (1974). Grape: How to grow them profitability. Bajaj
Publications, New Delhi.
3. Singh, S.P. (2002). Commercial Fruits. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana.

4.19 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. Ripe grape fruits are mostly consumed as table purpose which is very
easily digestible. Owing to their taste, nutrient content, composition and
low caloric output, grapes are refreshing fruits. It is used as fresh fruit,
for making rasin and juices. The grape juice is a nourishing thirst quencher,
a stimulant to the kidneys and a laxative. In European countries grape is
cultivated for making wines.
2. The main hybrids of grapes are “Arkavati”, “Arka Kanchan”, “Arka
128 Shyam” and “Arka Hans”.
3. Grape is mainly propagated by stem cuttings known as Asexual method Grape
of propagation. Hard wood cuttings, give higher success than semi hard
and soft wood cuttings, under ordinary conditions. The stem cuttings are
taken from one year old wood at the time of pruning, when the vines are
dormant. Cuttings are prepared by giving a slanting cut at the lower end,
immediately below a bud, while the upper cut at 0.75 to 2.0 cm above the
bud. It is essential that each cutting should have at least 3 to 4 buds.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. This is also known as Overhead trellis system. In this system, the vines
are allowed to grow straight up to a height of 1.5-1.6 m and then trained
on overhead 3-4 wires (45-60 cm apart) fixed to cross angle arms
supported by vertical pillar or post. The usual spacing for each vine is 3
x 3 m. It is considered better than Kniffin system, where the lower arms
are less productive, and is an improvement over bower system in respect
of ventilation and light penetration. It is relatively less expensive than
bower, but more expensive than kniffin system.
2. In North India, the grapes are pruned once in a year i.e. during the month
of January, but in South India, it is pruned twice a year, once in summer
and again in winter.
3. In grapes bunch wilting occurs at ripening stage, and the main symptoms
are shriveling of rachis and drying of berries at the tip of the bunch. This
disorder is attributed to moisture stress condition coupled with high
temperature. This malady can be checked by accerlating sugar
translocation to bunch. Spraying of 0.2 per cent boric acid has been proved
effective in reducing bunch wilting.

129
Sub Tropical Fruits
UNIT 5 LITCHI (LITCHI CHINENSIS SONN) and
JAMUN (SYZYGIUM CUMINI)
Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn)
5.2.1 Area and Production
5.2.2 Soil
5.2.3 Climate
5.2.4 Commercial Varieties
5.2.5 Planting
5.2.6 Propagation
5.2.7 Nutritional Requirements
5.2.8 Cultural Practices
5.2.9 Insect-pests and Diseases
5.2.10 Physiological Disorder
5.2.11 Harvesting
5.2.12 Storage
5.2.13 Packaging and Transportation
5.2.14 Processing
5.3 Jamun (Syzygium cumini)
5.3.1 Area and Production
5.3.2 Soil
5.3.3 Climate
5.3.4 Commercial Varieties
5.3.5 Planting
5.3.6 Propagation
5.3.7 Nutritional Requirements
5.3.8 Cultural Practices
5.3.9 Insect-pests and Diseases
5.3.10 Flower and Fruit Drop
5.3.11 Harvesting
5.3.12 Storage
5.3.13 Packaging and Transportation
5.3.14 Processing
5.4 Let Us Sum Up
5.5 Key Words
5.6 Further References
5.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
130
 Litchi and Jamun
5.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be in a position to:
• explain the botany, nutritional value and uses of litchi and jamun,
• discuss status of area and production of litchi and jamun,
• describe the soil, climatic and nutritional requirements,
• identify the different varieties by their names and characteristics,
• describe the planting and propagation methods and other cultural practices,
• describe various pests-diseases and physiological disorders, and
• explain how and when the harvesting, storing, packaging, transportation
and processing to be done.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn) is a
popular subtropical evergreen fruit
tree. The pearl white, translucent
fleshy, edible pulp of litchi fruit is
favorite of millions in India, China,
Japan, Burma etc, due to its attractive
appearance, delicate flavour, pleasant
fragrance and distinctive taste.
The food value of Litchi mainly lies
in its sugar and acid contents, which
again vary due to cultivars and Litchi Plant with Fruits
climate. Its fruits are rich in sugar,
which varies from 6.74 - 18.0 per cent and acidity greatly varies between
0.20 - 0.64 per cent. The moisture content in litchi fruit lies between 77-83
per cent. Besides sugar, litchi contains proteins, fats, considerable amount of
calcium, phosphorous, vitamin C, B1, and B2. A highly flavoured squash,
pickles, preserves and wines are made from litchi fruit. Almost all parts (leaves,
flowers, seeds, bark and roots) of litchi plant are used for medicine
preparations.
Jamun (Syzygium cumini) is an
important indigenous minor but
popular fruit of commercial value.
The maximum number of Jamun trees
are found scattered throughout the
tropical and subtropical regions. It is
widely grown in the larger parts of
India from the Indo-gangetic plains in
Jamun Tree
the North to Tamil Nadu in the South.
The Jamun tree is tall, evergreen generally grown for shade and wind break
on road and avenues. The tree is highly tolerant to drought and best suited to
131
Sub Tropical Fruits wasteland where other fruits cannot be grown successfully. It is also known
as jambolan, black plum, Indian black cherry, java plum, jambul, rajaman,
kalajam, jam and phalinda.
Fruits of jamun are very much
perishable in nature and mainly used
for dessert purposes. It is good source
of iron, apart from the usual content
eg. minerals, sugars, protein and
vitamins. The principal Vitamins in
jamun fruits are thiamine, riboflavin,
nicotinic acid, ascorbic acid and folic
acid. The anthocynin pigment is
responsible for the colour. Apart from
eating fresh, it can also be used for
making delicious, beverages, jellies, Jamun Fruits
jam, squash, wine, vinegar and pickles. The juice is extremely refreshing
with pleasant flavour. Jamun syrup is used for treating diarrhoea and diabetes.
Its seeds also have many therapeutic properties and can be used as animal
feed concentrate. The bark is used in dyeing and tanning.

5.2 LITCHI (LITCHI CHINENSIS SONN)

Litchi is a popular fruit of India. It is commonly consumed as a table fruit,
but in china, it is very popular in dried or canned state.
Litchi belongs to the family Sapindaceae which consists of 125 genera and
more than 1000 species. Genus Litchi has two species Litchi chinensis and
L. philippinensis (Wild type used as rootstock). It was introduced to Burma
and India by the end of the 17th Century from Southern China which is believed
to be its centre of origin.

5.2.1 Area and Production

China is the largest producer of litchi in the world. In India, litchi occupies
an area of 94.3 thousand ha. with an annual production 581.1 thousand mt.
other major litchi producing countries are Taiwan, Thailand, South Africa,
Australia etc. In India, more than 50 per cent of the crop is produced in
Bihar, particularly in its Northern parts, followed by West Bengal and Uttar
Pradesh. However, the productivity was maximum in Haryana (16.5) followed
by Mizoram (16.5), Jharkhand (11.1) and Punjab (11.1). The area and
production of litchi in different states of country is given in table-1.
Table 1 : Statewise area, production and productivity in total of Litchi during 2014-15.

Sl. State Area Production Productivity

No. (000 ha.) (000 mt.) ha/mt
1 Assam 5.7 53.8 9.4
2 Bihar 32.2 197.7 6.1
3 Chhattisgarh 5.6 39.2 7.0
4 Haryana 0.2 3.3 16.5
132
5 Himachal Pradesh 5.0 3.5 0.7 Litchi and Jamun

6 Jammu & Kashmir 1.0 1.2 1.2

7 Jharkhand 5.3 58.8 11.1
8 Mizoram 0.2 3.3 16.5
9 Nagaland 5.0 3.5 0.7
10 Orissa 1.0 1.2 1.2
11 Punjab 5.3 58.8 11.1
12 Sikkim 0.3 0.0 0.0
13 Tripura 4.0 20.3 5.1
14 Uttarakhand 9.6 19.2 2.0
15 Uttar Pradesh 4.5 40.6 9.0
16 West Bengal 94.3 76.7 8.2
Total 94.3 581.1 105.8

5.2.2 Soil
The litchi can grow under a wide range of soils including alluvial soils, loam,
heavy clays, and organic soils. High lime content of calcareous soils is also
beneficial to litchi trees. It is clear from the fact that soil of Bihar, where best
litchi are grown contain about 30 per cent lime. However, deep well drained
loamy soil rich in organic matter is beneficial for better growth and quality
fruits. Hard pan within 2.5 meters of soil is not required. The pH ranging
between 5.5 and 7.0 is beneficial. Water table should not be less than 1.5 to 2
m down. Litchi can with stand water for a considerable period, provided the
water doesn’t become stagnant, but will die after prolonged immersion.

5.2.3 Climate
Litchi being a subtropical fruit thrives best under moist subtropical climate.
It grows best in areas with cool, dry, frost free winter and long hot summer
with moist atmosphere. It can be grown up to an elevation of 800 meters.
Flowering is moderate with maximum temperature of 25°C and minimum
temperature of 15°C but satisfactory with cooler days or nights. Intensity of
sunlight is also important in litchi cultivation. Frost in winter and dry heat in
summer are limiting factors for its successful cultivation. Under these
conditions trees makes poor growth and fruit cracking is very serious problem.
The young plants require protection against frost and hot desiccating winds
for several years till they are firmly established.

5.2.4 Commercial Varieties

i) Dehradun : This variety is mainly grown in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and
Haryana. It is an early, regular and heavy bearing cultivar, with fruits
ripening in the second week of June. Its fruits have an attractive colour.
The fruit is susceptible to sunburn and cracking. The pulp is sweet,
moderately juicy, medium, soft in texture, TSS 17 per cent. The pulp/
seed ratio is 3.75:1.
ii) Calcuttia : This variety has proved very successful for growing in 133
Sub Tropical Fruits comparatively hot and dry areas. It is a heavy bearing cultivar with
excellent fruit quality and yields 80-100 kg fruit per tree. Its fruits are
large, attractive and mature in the third week of June. The fruit is less
susceptible to sunburn and cracking. The pulp is sweet, soft in texture,
moderately juicy with good flavour, TSS (18 %) and acidity (0.49 %).
The pulp/stone ratio is 4.78: 1.
iii) Seedless Late : This is descriptive name signifying a rather shriveled
seed and a much greater proportion of flesh in the fruit. Its fruit mature in
the third week of June and are more prone to splitting than Calcutta. It is
prone to irregular bearing. Fruits are deep, carmine red, pulp is soft, sweet
and very juicy with an agreeable flavour. The juice has 18.7 per cent TSS
and 0.53 per cent acidity. The pulp / stone ratio is 28:1. This variety
comes into bearing rather late.
iv) Rose Scented : The fruits of this variety have distinct rose aroma and
hence called rose scented. The fruits have attractive pink skin. This is a
medium yielding variety producing 80-90 kg fruits per tree. Fruits are
mostly heart shaped, pulp greyish white, soft and very sweet. The juice
has 12.79 per cent TSS and 0.33 per cent acidity. The pulp/stone ratio is
6.40:1. Fruits are moderately susceptible to sunburn and cracking.
v) Saharanpur : This is an early ripening variety which comes in the first
week of June and yield heavily. The fruits are large, heart-shaped and
deep orange to pink in colour. This variety resembles with Early Large
Red and Pinjore Common and is considered to be a synonym of these
varieties.
vi) Muzzafarpur : This is one of the important litchi variety mainly grown
in Bihar. This variety bears profusely and yields around 80 to 100 kg fruit
per tree. The fruits are deep orange to pink in colour and are less prone to
splitting. The fruits of this variety generally mature in the first week of
May in Eastern India and in the middle of June in Northern India. The
juice has 18 per cent TSS and 0.48 per cent acidity. The pulp/stone ratio
is 4.78:1.
The other varieties of litchi are Shahi, Purbi, Mclean, China, Bombai, Elachi,
Early Red, Early Seedless, Early Bedana, Large Red etc.

5.2.5 Planting
On well cultivated and leveled land, the pits of 1 x 1 x 1 m dimensions are
dug at the distance of 8 x 8 or 10 x 10 m (row to row and plant to plant). The
pits are allowed to remain open for about 7-10 days and then filled with top
soil mixed with 20-25 kg farmyard manure, 2 kg of bone meal and 300 g
muriate of potash. It is advisable to add about 4-5 kg soil per pit from litchi
orchard which contains mycorrhizal fungi. After filling up the pits they are
left as such, soil in the pits will settle down during raining season. Planting
can also be done in spring, if abundant irrigation water is available, planting
is done in the centre of pit with the help of planting board.
The new plantation may be taken up in the monsoon season i.e, July - August,
134 and irrigation has to be provided as and when necessary.
After planting, the young litchi plants need protection against winter frost Litchi and Jamun
and summer hot winds up to four-five years. This can be done by covering
the plants with sarkanda, rice straw (Parali) etc. Growing of dhaincha around
the young litchi plants also provides good protection in summer and winter.
In order to establish a good frame work, training of young plants has to be
carried out. Support may be necessary till proper establishment of litchi plants.

5.2.6 Propagation
Litchi can be raised by both (i) sexual – by seed and (ii) asexual – by vegetative
means
(a) Sexual or seed propagation : In
litchi, propagation by seed is not
common as the plants raised from
seed take about 7 to 12 years to
come into bearing. These
seedlings plant don’t produce true
to type and often produce fruits of
inferior quality, but seedlings are
raised for rootstock. Further, seed
propagation is the only method for
raising hybrid seedlings, to breed
new varieties. Seeds are only used
for raising rootstock for grafting
and budding purpose which is not
practiced commercially.
(b) Asexual method of propagation : This type of propagation is done by
multiplication of vegetative part, also known as vegetative means of
propagation. Litchi is propagated by air layering on commercial scale.
i) Rootstock development : The seed of Litchi are also used for raising
of rootstock, for grafting and budding purpose.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

a, b, c, d, e, and f 135
are the different stages of raising a new litchi plant through air layering
Sub Tropical Fruits ii) Air Layering : It is the most common and easiest method of vegetative
propagation in litchi which is also known as “marcotting” and
“goottee”. For air-layering a branch of 45 to 60 cm is selected and
ring of bark about 2.5 cm in length is removed. A ball of rooting
medium consisting of two part soil, one part sand and one part leaf
mould or sphagnum moss is placed on ring portion covering about 2
cm from the upper end of the ring which is followed by tying with a
piece of polythene (20 cm x 25 cm). When sufficient roots have
developed (usually it takes 4-6 weeks), the layer is separated from
mother plant by giving a cut about 5 cm below the lower end of the
ring. Air layering is done in the beginning of monsoon i.e. June-July
and may be continued till September.
iii) Cutting : Litchi can be propagated by soft-wood cutting under
intermittent mist with aid of IBA at 3000 ppm when cuttings are struck
in the month of April in perlite rooting medium.
iv) Budding/Grafting : Among budding technique chip and shield
budding are successful. However, in case of grafting, splice grafting
and inarching have been reported to be successful but are tedious and
time consuming methods.

5.2.7 Nutritional Requirements

The acute shortage of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium results in stunted
growth and may even stop floral initiation in litchi. Therefore suitable
nutritional programme will ensure better production. Nitrogen deficient trees
show yellowing of old leaves initially and later on, the young leaves may
also become yellow. When phosphorous is deficient the leaflets become
abnormally large and dark green. The texture of the leaves is little rough and
dark brown scorched areas appear in the old leaves. The deficiency of
potassium causes considerable stunting of the plants. The leaves are small
and soft in texture. The scorching of leaf margins starts from the tip and
progress gradually towards the base of a leaflet. The following fertilizer and
manure schedule is recommended for litchi orchard.
Table 2 : Manure and fertilizer schedule for Litchi orchard.

Age of Plant FYM (g/tree)

(years) (kg/tree) Calcium Super Muriate
ammonium phosphate of potash
nitrate
1–3 10 – 20 0.3 – 1.0 0.2 – 0.6 0.06 – 0.150
4–6 25 – 40 1.0 – 2.0 0.75 – 1.25 0.20 – 0.30
7 – 10 40 – 50 2.0 – 3.0 1.5 – 2.0 0.35 – 0.50
Above 10 60 3.25 2.25 0.60
Farmyard manure, super phosphate and muriate of potash should be applied
in December. Half of calcium Ammonium nitrate, should be applied in the
136 middle of February and the other half in middle of April, after the fruit set.
In Litchi, zinc deficiency was noticed, the affected plants show bronzing of Litchi and Jamun
the leaves, leaflets become small and pointed. Spraying 4 kg of zinc sulphate
and 2 kg of hydrated lime in 500 liters of water per hectare fulfills the
requirements. Spraying should be done in spring when plants put up new
flesh of leaves. Spray of boron at 0.8 percent at the pit hardening stage is
beneficial.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: a) Space is given below for the answers.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
1. Write short note on air layering in litchi.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. What are the important varieties of litchi ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

5.2.8 Cultural Practices

i) Irrigation : Both young as well as fruit bearing trees need adequate soil
moisture. Young plant should be provided regular irrigation for their
establishment and optimum growth. For proper vegetative growth and
fruit production, maintenance of optimum soil moisture is also essential
in the litchi orchard. The development of litchi fruit takes place during
March - May, when the temperature starts rising and the atmospheric
humidity remain quite low. Unless frequent irrigation is provided during
the period to the litchi orchard, there may be severe fruit drop and fruit
cracking. It has been recommended to apply irrigation at 45 per cent
ASM depletion level from November - May i.e. at an interval of 35 days.
Usually basin system of irrigation is followed. Irrigation by flooding or
by furrow method is also practiced depending on the availability and
source of water.
ii) Training and pruning : These operations are done to provide balanced
shape to the tree. Young plants are given support so that they can grow
erect. Pruning of bearing trees is not usually done except to remove dead
or diseased branches and damaged shoots. Flowers are borne mostly on
current year’s growth and old shoots rarely produces flowers. Old and
poorly yielding trees may be pruned severely so that new branches are
produced and yield potential is improved. During harvesting the terminal
shoots are cut to remove fruits in branches which itself serves the purpose
of pruning.
137
Sub Tropical Fruits iii) Inter-cropping : Litchi is a slow growing tree and takes at least 6 years
to come into flowering and fruiting. Hence, intercropping in the young
orchard is recommended for income generation during the pre-bearing
period. Intercropping will also help to protect the young litchi plants.
Vegetables, pulses, flowers, berseem, quick growing fruit plants, such as
phalsa, papaya, banana, peach (low chilling cultivars) can be grown as
intercrops. While growing intercrops, care should be taken to ensure that
these intercrops are not grown at the cost of the litchi plants.
iv) Mulching : The moisture of the soil can be preserved by providing mulch
over it. Apart from this, it also checks the growth of weeds. The use of
mulch in young litchi plants, encourages the development of better root
system, than in the case of the plants growing in a bare soil. The farmyard
manure or compost can be used as mulch. It is excellent mulch material,
because they enrich the soil in addition to conserve the soil moisture.
Cutting down of tall weeds growing in the orchard and leaving them
spread over the orchard soil also provides good mulch.
v) Fruit drop : Fruit drop in litchi is a serious malady that affects the yield
considerably. Although initial fruit set in litchi is very high, but a very
small portion finally matures. The intensity of fruit drop during the first
fortnight after fruit set is estimated to be around 45 per cent and during
the second fortnight after fruit set remains only 20 per cent. The
disturbance in the endogenous hormonal level is one of the major
contributing factors responsible fruit drop. Spraying any of the chemicals
such as GA3 (25 mg/litre), Borax (0.5 %), NAA (20 mg/litre), ZnSO4 (0.5
%) may results in better fruit retention. Three sprayings should be done
1st spray at the flower opening stage, than 2nd spray after 15 days and the
last spray after a fortnight.
vi) Weed control : Weeds, in litchi orchards reduce plant growth and vigour
by competing with the trees for light, moisture and nutrients. Application
of paraquat controlled broad-leaved annual weeds and grasses in the early
stage of growth, but it will only scorch mature perennial weeds. Systemic
herbicides, such as glyphosate are translocated to the roots of actively
growing weeds ensuring complete death.
5.2.1.9 Insect-pests and Diseases
Now we will discuss about the, harmful insect-pests and diseases which harm
the litchi plant time to time in detail one by one :
a) Insect-Pest
The main insect pest which cause damage to litchi are :
i) Erinose mite (Aceria litchi) : It is one of the most important pest of
litchi. The characteristic symptoms of this mite is chocolate brown velvety
growth on the ventral surface of the leaves, in which the mite takes shelter,
feed and breed. The adults lay eggs on young leaves. Larva hatch in 3-4
days and start feeding immediately and thus the damage occurs while
leaves are still young. The adult stage of the pest is reached in about 13
138 days. The affected leaves become distorted and show leaf curl symptoms.
 Infestation progresses through new flushes from older erinose on mature Litchi and Jamun
leaves.
The mite population could be controlled by spraying 0.05 per cent Dicofol
before and after flowering followed by 0.05 per cent Phosphomidon and
Dimethoate. Spraying of Kelthene (1.5 ml/l) before and after flowering
gave the most effective result in reducing leaf curl and increasing fruit
yield.
ii) Leaf Roller (Platypeplus aprobola) : The caterpillars roll and web the
tender leaves, feed inside and subsequently pupate. Occasionally they
damage the flower buds. Heavy infestations cause extensive leaf damage,
especially to developing flushes. The egg, larval and pupal periods last
for 2 - 8, 12 - 53, and 7 - 24 days, respectively. Because of their sheltered
habit it is difficult to kill the insects with a contact insecticide.
Combination of a contact insecticide with one possessing a fumigant action
may control the insect. Cypermethrin (0.006 %) is most effective in
controlling leaf roller in North India.
iii) Caterpillar (Indarbela tetranis) : This is an important insect pest of
litchi in India. The adult moth lays eggs on old branches during May and
June in groups of 15-25 which hatch after 8-11 days. The larvae feed on
the surface of the back till September. After this they bore into bark and
underlying tissues in the branches. These become full grown in December
and pupate in late April.
Plugging the holes with fumigants, such as Carbon bisulphide, Petroleum
or Formalin and then plastering with mud kills the caterpillar.
iv) Fruit borers (Conopomorpha cramerella Snellen) : This is seen during
the rainy season and causes serious damage to the fruits of late varieties.
The larvae of this species damages the fruit by entering through a small
pin head size hole near the attachment of peduncle to the fruit and feeds
inside it. These fruits are unfit for consumption and did not fetch good
price. Full grown larvae resembles the colour of the aril i.e. cream coloured
with brown head and pupa are dark brown in colour. Adults are light
brown in colour.
Spray of Fenvelrate (50 g a.i./ha ) and Quinalphos (500 g a.i./ha ) give
better results in controlling this pest.
b) Diseases
Red rust as a common disease in litchi orchards. The disease first appeared
on young unfolded tender leaves. On the infected young leaves, small lesions
of velvety white growth appear on the lower surface. On the upper surface
just opposite the lesions, chlorotic patches occur. As the leaves unfold and
increase in size, the velvety growth becomes more prominent and dense and
larger areas of leaves are covered with this growth. Old and thick leaves
show various types of depressions and curling. The velvety growth turns
light brown and finally dark brown to brick red. The affected leaves become
leathery and brittle. The disease results in a considerable decline in tree vigour
and the fruit yield. 139
Sub Tropical Fruits Six sprays of lime-sulphur, three during autumn and three during the spring
season, at fortnightly intervals, give a highly satisfactory control of the
diseases, reducing twig infection by 94 per cent.

5.2.10 Physiological Disorder

i) Fruit cracking : Sun burning and skin cracking of developing fruits are
serious problems met in litchi. These are promoted due to high
temperature, low humidity and low soil moisture. A combination of
temperature higher than 38°C and relative humidity lower than 60 per
cent was favourable for fruit cracking. Cultivars which have relatively
thin skin, tubercles per unit area and round to flat shape are less prone to
crack. Early cultivars are more susceptible than late cultivars. On north
east side there is less splitting of fruits than of south west side, because of
shade. Adequate irrigation to the bearing trees during fruit growth and
development, spraying of zinc sulphate (1.5 per cent), at weekly intervals,
starting from pea stage of fruit growth to harvest or spraying of borax @
8 per cent, GA3 at 40 ppm, ethephon at 1.0 to 10.0 ppm reduce the
incidence of fruit cracking.
5.2.11 Harvesting
Litchi is a non-climateric fruit and the
flatness of tubercles and comparative
smoothness of epicarp, besides the
changes in fruit colour, determines the
maturity of the fruit for harvesting the
litchi fruits. The fruit maturity was
optimal at 55 days after fruit set in cv.
Calcuttia when the fruit were bright
pinkish red with flattened tubercles
like other fruits, litchi are not
Litchi cv. Calcuttia
harvested individually, but they are
harvested in bunches along with a portion of branch and a few leaves. This is
said to prolong the storage life of fruit and at the same time, the tree receives
mild pruning. As all the fruits on a tree do not ripe at the same time, the fruit
panicles are spot picked several times. Harvesting of fruits should not be
done immediately after rains, when the trees are still wet, otherwise the
spoilage of the fruit in the storage would be high. Harvesting is usually done
in May-June. Litchi starts bearing at the age of 6 - 8 years and yields taken
from a full grown tree is about 80 - 150 kg.

5.2.12 Storage
At ambient temperatures of 20-30°C, litchi lose the bright red colour and the
pericarp starts browning within 24 hours after harvest. Loss of moisture
through the cracks leads to brown discolouration after 3-5 per cent weight
loss. The availability of litchi can be prolonged by keeping the fruits in the
cold storage. The most important post-harvest need of litchi is the retention
of fruit colour and quality for longer period so that the marketing is phased
out to avoid the glut and ensure better premium to the growers. The shelf life
140 of litchi fruits can be enhanced up to 35 days in cv. Seedless, Late by storing
them in perforated polythene bags of 100 gauge thickness in the commercial Litchi and Jamun
cold storage (0-3.3°C and relative humidity 85-90 per cent), after treating
with 6 per cent wax emulsion.
5.2.13 Packaging and Transportation
A good packaging, careful handling and a efficient transport system will ensure
supply of litchi fruits to the consumers in an acceptable condition at a
minimum cost. Litchi fruits should be graded and then packed in mulberry
baskets, shallow baskets or crates of suitable size. Soft dry grass or banana
leaves should be placed in the baskets before litchi clusters are piled up. The
clusters should not be packed too deep or too high as the bottom fruit get
crushed. The fruit clusters are covered with some more grass or banana leaves
and a piece of moist gunny bags should be wrapped around the basket and
tied securely.
For long distance market, the litchi fruits are first treated with sulphur and
packed in non crushable material and transported by the means of road or by
rail. For export, the means of transport is air, where the fruits are cooled
immediately after harvest to 0-2°C.
5.2.14 Processing
The canned litchi is of excellent quality and has great demand in the market.
Canning has been standardized with 35 per cent sugar syrup and 0.2 per cent
acidity and sterilized for 15-20 minutes in boiling water. The varieties Early
Red, Early Seedless, Early Bedana, Purbi, Large Red and Shahi have been
found suitable for canning. Various kinds of beverages like squash, syrup,
nectar, carbonated beverages etc. could be prepared from litchi juice. Litchi
drying, either under the sun or on charcoal, is very popular in China and a
large quantity of dried litchi is exported all over the world.
Jelly and jam can be prepared by boiling the pulp with sugar and citric acid.
Freezing the whole fruit is the best method to preserve fresh flavour and
quality of litchi fruits.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note: a) Space is given below for the answers.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
1. Write short note on fruit cracking in litchi?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. What are the different processed products of litchi fruit?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................ 141
Sub Tropical Fruits ............................................................................................................

5.3 JAMUN (SYZYGIUM CUMINI)

It is an important indigenous minor fruit of Myrtaceae family. The fruits are
deep purple and attractive. It is widely grown in tropical and subtropical
climate. Fruits are rich source of anthocyanin having anti-diabetic properly.

5.3.1 Area and Production

It is mainly growth in Laos, Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand, West Indies,
Algeria, Israel and in many African countries. Jamun is seldom planted in
the form of an orchard and generally scattered trees are found in fruit
plantations. Information regarding the area of this fruit in India is not available.
However, in India jamun is mainly grown in Karnataka, Maharashtra, Gujarat,
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

5.3.2 Soil
Jamun tree adopts to a wide range of soil types. However, well drained, deep
loamy soils is considered most suitable for its growth and good fruiting. The
tree can withstand salinity and waterlogged condition. Its cultivation should
be avoided in very heavy or light sandy soils. Jamun is also grown successfully
in low to medium rainfall areas (600-700 mm) in vertisols.

5.3.3 Climate
Jamun is successfully grown under tropical and subtropical climate. It also
occurs in lower range of the Himalayas up to an elevation of 1300 m and in
the Kumaon hills up to 1600 m above mean sea level. Jamun is somewhat
more susceptible to cold and drought. It requires dry weather at the time of
flowering and fruiting. For ripening of fruit and proper development of its
size, colour and taste, early rains are considered very beneficial. The fruits
show remarkable improvement in color and size after the very first shower
of rain.

5.3.4 Commercial Varieties

No named or standard varieties of this fruit are cultivated on commercial
scale. The common variety grown under North Indian conditions is as follow:
i) Ra Jamun : It produced big sized
fruit with average length of 2.5 to 3.5
cm and of diameter 1.5 to 2.0 cm.
Fruits are oblong in shape, deep purple
or bluish black in colour at fully ripe
stage. The pulp colour of ripe fruit is
purple pink and the fruit is juicy and
sweet. The stone is small in size. It
ripens in the month of June-July. The
variety is very common among the
Ra Jamun
people.
142
ii) Small sized Jamun : It is a late maturing variety. The average length of Litchi and Jamun
fruit is 1.5 to 2.0 cm and the diameter is 1 to 1.5 cm. The fruit is slightly
round in shape, deep purple or blackish in colour at full ripe stage. The colour
of pulp is purple, less in juice, weight and sweetness of pulp in comparison
to that of “Ra Jamun”. The stone is very large. Fruits ripen in the month of
August.

5.3.5 Planting
Seedlings raised either through seeds or vegetative methods are transplanted
in permanent places during monsoon i.e. July - August. February - March
transplantation may also be done with special care and protection. Planting
distance vary with the purpose of planting. In the avenue or along roadside,
the trees are spaced 12 m, whereas, as windbreak 6 m spacing is best to
encourage taller growth. Jamuns are very rarely used to form an orchard,
however it can conveniently be planted at a distance of 8-10 m in square
system. In poor soils, a spacing of 6 x 6 m is sufficient. Pits of 1 x 1 x 1 m are
dig in May - June and filled in advance with a mixture of equal amount of
upper soil and well rotten farmyard manure @ 20 kg/pit.

5.2.6 Propagation
Jamun is raised by sexual and asexual means of propagation.
a) Sexual propagation
Jamun is usually propagated by seeds. Fresh seeds show high percentage
of germination. Generally sexual means of propagation is used to breed
new varieties.
b) Asexual propagation
Asexual propagation is carried out by cutting inarching, grafting, veener
grafting, T- budding and patch budding.
i) Cutting : Polyembryony has been found in jamun. Rooting on cuttings
is difficult. However, cutting treated with IBA and IAA (100 ppm)
produce roots.
ii) Air layering : Air layering is possible if done in the spring using IBA
at 500 ppm.
iii) Rootstock : It is developed from the seeds of Jamun. For raising the
rootstock, seeds are collected from healthy, vigorously growing and
high yielding jamun trees. Seedlings are raised either in bed or in
pots singly.
iv) Inarching : Jamun can also be propagated by inarching, where
seedlings are used as a rootstock. Rootstocks are inarched with the
matching thickness of scion.
Rootstock are watered if necessary till the grafts are separated from
the parent tree. The union will complete in a period of about six weeks.

143
Sub Tropical Fruits v) Veener grafting/grafting : In the month of June - July one or two
year old seedlings are used as rootstock for grafting. Veener grafting
gives 31 per cent success when one year old seedlings are used as
rootstock. The shoots are taken from spring flush and the method is
employed in the month of July.
vi) T-budding and patch budding : The Jamun can be best vegetatively
propagated through T-budding and as well as through patch budding.
The seedling of jamun is used as a rootstock. The per cent success is
higher in T-budding (70 %) than patch budding (60 %). The best time
for budding in both the cases is either during February - March or
during August - September. However, the success during August -
September is higher.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

Note: a) Space is given below for the answers.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
1. What is the planting method of Jamun ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. Which methods of propagation is successfully employed in Jamun ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

5.3.7 Nutritional Requirements

Jamun trees normally are not provided manuring, even though an annual
application of 20 kg of farmyard manure at pre-bearing stage and 80 kg at
fruiting stage per tree is recommended for its proper growth and flowering.
In highly fertile soil, jamun tree may have tendency of having more vegetative
growth resulting delay in fruiting and less number of fruits.

5.3.8 Cultural Practices

i) Irrigation : The young plants require much watering specially during
summer months. Young trees require 8 to 10 irrigation in a year, while
bearing trees require 4-5 irrigation during the month of May - June when
the ripening of fruits starts. In the remaining period of the year, irrigation
may be given when there are no rains or dry spell persists. During winter
months irrigation proves useful as it protects the plants from frost injury.
ii) Training and Pruning : Jamun plants should be trained according to the
modified leader system. Regular pruning is not required in jamun plants.
144
 However, in later years, the dry twigs and crossed branches are removed. Litchi and Jamun
While training the plant, the frame work of branches is allowed to develop
above 60 to 100 cm from the ground level.
iii) Intercropping : To supplement the income from pre-bearing period of
jamun, intercropping should be practised. Intercropping with legume crops
also improve fertility of the soil. Fruit crops like peach, plum, guava,
kinnow, kagzi lime, phalsa and papaya can be grown as filler trees. Such
filler trees can be uprooted when the jamun trees starts bearing commercial
crop. In addition intercrops of vegetables near established market may be
taken with cauliflower, cabbage, knolkhol, radish, brinjal, turnip, carrot
etc.

5.3.9 Insect-pests and Diseases

A few insect-pest and diseases attack these plants:
a) Insect-pests
i) White fly (Dialcurodes eugeniae) : It damages the tree in all parts of
India. Sometimes the fruits of jamun get wormy due to attack of fruit fly.
Pests can be controlled by maintaining sanitary situation in the orchard.
Pick up the affected fruits and burry them deep in the soil. The area under
the tree should be dug so that the maggots in the affected fruits and the
pupae hibernating in the soil may be destroyed.
ii) Leaf eating caterpillar (Carea subtillis) : It is reported to damage the
plant in the South India at Coimbatore. The insect infest the leaves and
may defoliate the trees.
At an early stage of infestation, the plant should be sprayed with
Dimethoate, Rogor or Malathion @ 625 ml in 500 litre of water.
iii) Squirrels, Parrots, Crows and other birds : The jamun fruits are also
damaged by the squirrels and other birds. For keeping them away, beating
of drum or flinging small dry earthern balls through a sling is useful.
b) Diseases
i) Leaf spot and fruit rot (Glomerella cingulata) : Affected leaf shows
scattered spots of light brown or reddish brown in colour. The affected
fruit rot and shriveled.
The disease can be controlled with fungicide like Zineb at 0.17-0.20 per
cent or Bordeaux mixture (2:2:250).

5.3.10 Flower and Fruit drop

Heavy drop of flowers and fruits has been observed in jamun at various
stages. About 50 per cent flowers drop within the 3-4 weeks of flowering. It
occurs at very young stage during 5-7 weeks of full bloom. The problem of
flower and fruit drop can be minimized by spraying of GA3 (60 ppm) twice,
one at full bloom and other 15 days after fruit set.
145
Sub Tropical Fruits 5.3.11 Harvesting
Seedling plant of jamun normally starts bearing 8-10 years after planting,
while the grafted or budded plants bears in about 5-7 years. They ripens in
June - July in North and north-
eastern states, May in
Karnataka and Andhra
Pradesh and July - August in
Tamil Nadu. The total
ripening process continues for
about a month during summer
to rainy season. Right time of
harvesting of fruits is
confirmed when the fruit
attain its full size and
characteristic deep purple or
black colours. As soon as the
fruits ripens, they should be picked immediately, otherwise they overripe
and drop down. Ripe fruits are handpicked with possible care to avoid damage.
The pickers collect the fruits from the trees with the gunny bags. The bags of
fruits are relieved with the help of rope down from top to the ground, to be
emptied in a basket. Fruits are mostly picked daily, during harvesting period
and sent to the market. The average yield of fruit from a full grown seedling
trees is about 80 to 100 kg and from a grafted tree 60 to 70 kg per tree.
5.3.12 Storage
The fruit is highly perishable and can be kept in good condition for about 2
to 3 days under ordinary temperature. However, pre-cooled fruits packed in
polythene bags can be stored well for three weeks at 8 to 10°C temperature
and 85 to 90 per cent relative humidity.
5.3.13 Packaging and Transportation
As the fruit is highly perishable in nature, so it is not exported to long distance.
Wooden basket or bamboo are commonly used for packing the fruits and
sent to the markets for daily consumption. However, in the recent times the
CFB boxes of 1-2 kg filling capacity are commonly used for storing the fruits
in pre-cooled chamber and in such packing conditions they can also be
transported to distant market.

5.3.14 Processing
Mostly, the jamun fruits are used for dessert purposes, however, the fruits are
also used for making jam, jelly, squash, beverages, vinegar, pickles and wine.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

Note: a) Space is given below for the answers.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
146
 1. What are the uses of Jamun fruit ? Litchi and Jamun

............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. Write down the control measures of leaf eating caterpillar and leaf
spot of Jamun.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

5.4 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have studied about the History, classification, nutritive value
and uses of litchi and jamun along with their cultivation. Both the fruit crops
are of sub-tropical region but jamun can also be grown in tropical region
successfully. Both the fruits have medicinal value contains thiamine, riboflavin
and ascorbic acid. Both the fruit plant can be raised by sexual method (by
seed) and by asexual method i.e. air layering in litchi and inarching, veneer
grafting and T-budding in jamun. Shortage of manures and fertilizers results
in stunted growth and somewhat reduce the fruit setting. Fruit drop and fruit
cracking are the serious maladies of the litchi. Both the fruits are highly
perishable, therefore require good packaging, careful handling storage and a
efficient transport system. As you have studied, jam, jelly, squashes etc. can
also be prepared from litchi and jamun.

5.5 KEY WORDS

Layering : Method of vegetative plant propagation where
adventitious roots are caused to form from a
ring produced on the branch by removing the
bark, when it is still attached with mother plant.
Cracking : A disorder where fruit surface cracks mainly
due to heavy irrigation or rain after long dry
spell.
Perishable : Spoils quickly within 1 or 2 days.

5.6 FURTHER REFERENCES

1. Maiti, S.C. (1986). Litchi: In : Fruits of India-Tropical and Sub-
Tropical (ed. T.K.Bose). Naya Prokash, Calcutta.
2. Sadhu, M.K. and Chattopadhyay, P.K. (2001). Introductory Fruit Crops.
Naya Prokash, Calcutta.
3. Bal, J.S. (1997). Fruit Growing. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana. 147
Sub Tropical Fruits
5.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. Air layering also known as marcotting / goottee. For air - layering, a
branch of 45 to 60 cm is selected and ring of bark about 2.5 cm in length
is removed. A ball of rooting medium consisting of two part soil, one
part sand and one part leaf mould or sphagnum moss is placed on ring
portion covering about 2 cm from the upper end of the ring which is
followed by tying with a piece of polythene (20 cm x 25 cm). After 4 to 6
weeks when sufficient roots have developed, the layer is separated from
mother plant by giving a cut about 5 cm below the lower end of the ring.
The rooted layers should, therefore, be very carefully be planted in the
nursery and irrigated regularly. Air layering is done in the beginning of
monsoon i.e. June - July and may be continued till September.
2. The main varieties of the litchi are Dehradun, Calcuttia, Seedless Late,
Rose Scented, Saharanpur, Muzaffarpur etc.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Cracking of developing fruits is a serious problem in litchi and are
promoted due to high temperature, low humidity and low soil moisture.
A combination of temperature higher than 38°C and relative humidity
lower than 60 per cent was favourable for fruit cracking. Inadequate
moisture during the early period of fruit growth results in hard and non-
elastic skin (sun burnt) and it may crack when subjected to increased
internal pressure as a result of rapid aril growth following irrigation.
Cultivars which have relatively thin skin, tubercles per unit area and round
to flat shape are less prone to crack. Early cultivars are more susceptible
than late cultivars. On north east side there is less splitting of fruits than
of south west side because of shade. An adequate irrigation to the bearing
trees during fruit growth and development, spraying of zinc sulphate (1.5
per cent) at weekly intervals, starting from pea stage of fruit growth to
harvest or spraying of borax @ 8 per cent, GA3 at 40 ppm, Ethephon at
1.0 to 10.0 ppm may reduce the incidence of fruit cracking.
2. Mostly the litchi is consumed as a fresh fruit, however, canned litchi has
much demand in the market. Various kinds of beverages like squash,
syrup, nectar, carboarted beverages etc could be prepared from litchi juice.
Dry litchi is very popular in China and a large quantity of dried litchi is
exported all over the world. Jelly and jam can also be prepared from the
pulp of litchi.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1. Jamun is a good source of iron, apart from the usual content eg. minerals,
sugars, protein and vitamins. The principal vitamins in jamun fruits are
thiamine, riboflavin, nicotinic acid, ascorbic acid and folic acid. Jamun
148
 syrup is used for treating diarrhoea and diabetes. It is stomahic, carminative Litchi and Jamun
and diuretic.
2. Jamun can be propagated both by sexual (seeds) and asexual (air layering,
inarching, veneer grafting, T-budding and patch budding) methods.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1. Apart from eating fresh jamun fruits, it can also be used for making
delicious, beverages, jellies, jam, squash, wine, vinegar and pickles. Its
seeds also have many therapeutic properties and can be used as animal
feed concentrate. The bark is used in dyeing and tanning.
2. Leaf eating caterpillar can be controlled by spraying Dimethoate, Rogor
or Malathion @ 625 ml in 500 litre of water whereas, leaf spot disease
can be controlled with fungicide like Zineb at 0.17-0.20 per cent or
Bordeaux mixture (2:2:250).

149
Sub Tropical Fruits
UNIT 6 GUAVA (PSIDIUM GUAJAVA L.) AND
POMEGRANATE (PUNICA GRANATUM L.)
Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Guava
6.2.1 Area and Production
6.2.2 Soil
6.2.3 Climate
6.2.4 Commercial Varieties
6.2.4.1 Allahabad Safeda
6.2.4.2 Lucknow-49
6.2.4.3 Banarsi
6.2.4.4 Apple Colour
6.2.4.5 Chittidar
6.2.4.6 Seedless
6.2.5 Hybrids of Guava
6.2.6 Planting
6.2.7 Propagation
6.2.7.1 Vegetative / Asexual Methods
6.2.7.2 Sexual /by seed Method
6.2.8 Nutritional Requirement
6.2.9 Cultural Practices
6.2.9.1 Irrigation
6.2.9.2 Training and Pruning
6.2.9.3 Intercropping
6.2.9.4 Regulation of Flowering
6.2.10 Pests and Diseases
6.2.10.1 Insect-pests
6.2.10.2 Diseases
6.2.11 Harvesting
6.2.12 Storage
6.2.13 Packaging and Transportation
6.3 Pomegranate
6.3.1 Area and Production
6.3.2 Soil
6.3.3 Climate
6.3.4 Commercial Varieties
6.3.4.1 Ganesh
6.3.4.2 Alandi
150 6.3.4.3 Kandhari
 6.3.4.4 Dholka Guava and
6.3.4.5 Jalore Seedless Pomegranate

6.3.4.6 Mridula
6.3.5 Planting
6.3.6 Propagation
6.3.6.1 Asexual/Vegetative Method
6.3.6.2 Sexual/by seed Method
6.3.7 Nutritional Requirements
6.3.8 Cultural Practices
6.3.8.1 Irrigation
6.3.8.2 Intercropping
6.3.8.3 Training and Pruning
6.3.8.4 Crop Regulation
6.3.9 Pests and Diseases
6.3.9.1 Insect-pests
6.3.9.2 Diseases
6.3.10 Physiological Disorder
6.3.10.1 Cracking or Splitting of Fruits
6.3.11 Harvesting
6.3.12 Storage
6.3.13 Packaging and Transportation
6.4 Let Us Sum Up
6.5 Key Words
6.6 Further References
6.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

6.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be in a position to:
• know the importance and status (area & production) of guava and
pomegranate,
• describe the soil, climatic and nutritional requirements of each,
• identify the different varieties by their names and characteristics,
• describe the planting, propagation methods and other cultural practices,
• explain various pests-diseases and physiological disorders, and
• identify the maturity indices, harvesting time, storage and packaging.

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Guava (Psidium guajava Linn.) is one of the most common fruits in India. It
has been in cultivation in India since early 17th century. It is a sub-tropical
fruit and also known as “Apple of the tropics”. In India, its position is fourth 151
Sub Tropical Fruits after mango, banana and citrus, so far
as area and production of major fruits
are considered. Guava is such a fruit
which is grown all over the country in
the kitchen gardening, near the well
and tube well premises and on a
commercial scale.
Guava belongs to the family
Myrtaceae. It is mainly a self
pollinated crop but occurrence of cross
pollination results in great variation in
the seedling population. Genus
Psidium contains about 150 species. Most of the cultivars of guava belong to
Psidum guajava L.
The ripe fruits of guava are the best
relished by the rich and the poor alike.
Guava is a rich source of vitamin C,
B2 pectin, and minerals like calcium,
phosphorous and iron. The vitamin C
content of guava fruit is four to five
times higher than the citrus fruits.
Excellent salad and pudding are
prepared from the shell of the ripe
fruit. Ripe juicy fruits are eaten fresh.
The fruits after removal of the seeds
are used for preparing jam, jelly, paste, juice and nectar. It is also canned in
sugar syrup or made into fruit butter. In some countries, the leaves are used
for treating diarrhea and also for dyeing and tanning.
The pomegranate (Punica granatum
L.) is one of the esteemed dessert fruits
of tropical and subtropical regions. It
is mainly grown in homestead gardens
and its commercial cultivation in India
has stated only recently. It is grown
for its delicious and juicy pink seed
arils which are eaten fresh.
Pomegranate is a bushy shrub due to
its natural branching close to the
ground but can be made to a tree with
proper training, generally 5 to 6 m in
height. It is a hardy fruit crop. It can
tolerate drought to some extent.
Pomegranate belongs to the family Punicaceae and has originated in Iran. It
is extensively cultivated in Mediterranean countries like Spain, Morocco,
Iran, Egypt, Afghanistan and Baluchistan. Pomegranate fruits are favourite
table fruit. The fresh fruit is of exquisite quality while its processed product
like bottled juice, syrups and jelly are highly appreciated. The juice is
152
considered useful for patients Guava and
suffering from leprosy. Fruit juice Pomegranate
easily fermented and may be used for
the production of wine. The juice of
wild pomegranate is used in the
manufacture of citric acid and sodium
nitrate for medicinal purpose.
Pomegranate is known best for curing
the chronic stomach ailment. Seeds of
pomegranate contain oil which has a
potential for industrial use. Sour aril
of the wild types can be utilized for
the preparation of anardana.

6.2 GUAVA (PSIDIUM GUAJAVA L.)

For cultivation of guava the following points are taken into consideration to
grow a proper orchard.

6.2.1 Area and Production

In India, guava occupies an area of 264.85 thousand ha with an annual
production of 4053.51 thousand mt. and accounting for 3.0 and 3.1 per cent
of area and production, respectively. Punjab is the largest producer of guava
accounting for 13.99 per cent followed by Uttar Pradesh (11.70%) and Madhya
Pradesh (10.77%) although best quality guava is produced in Uttar Pradesh.
The district of Allahabad has a reputation of growing the best guava in the
country and world. In India, guava is widely grown in almost all the states of
the country. Guava is commercially grown in USA, Mexico, Peru, Egypt,
South Africa, Algeria, Brazil, Columbia, West Indies, Southern China and
Malayan Peninsula.
Table 1 : Statewise area, production and productivity in
total of guava during 2017-18.

Sl. State Area Production Productivity

No. (000 ha.) (000 mt.) ha/mt
1 Uttar Pradesh 49.53 928.44 18.75
2 Madhya Pradesh 35.08 686.70 19.58
3 Bihar 27.61 427.61 15.49
4 West Bengal 16.25 215.20 12.95
5 Chhatisgarh 21.89 197.18 9.01
6 Punjab 8.69 195.60 22.50
7 Haryana 12.09 137.02 11.33
8 Gujarat 12.67 169.57 13.38
9 Maharashtra 9.07 122.83 13.55
10 Andhra Pardesh 9.53 229.78 24.12
11 Tamil Nadu 9.69 155.06 16.00
Others 52.75 588.52 11.16
Total 264.85 4053.51 187.82
153
Sub Tropical Fruits 6.2.2 Soil
Guava is grown on heavy clay soils to very light sandy soils as well as on those
which are commonly considered suitable for fruit production. Guava trees are
very hardy and can thrive on all types of soil. Guava plants are sensitive to
water logging hence soil should be well drained. Guava is grown in areas with
pH ranging from 4.5 to 7.5. The best soil must be deep, friable and well drained.

6.2.3 Climate
Guava is now being cultivated in countries with tropical and subtropical
climate from sea level to 1500 m and can tolerate a wide range of climates. It
can be grown in plains as well as in the sub mountainous tracts provided
sufficient care is taken to shelter the trees against frost and cold winds during
early stage of growing. It grows best with annual rainfall below 100 cm
restricted between June to September. The optimum temperature requirement
of guava ranges between 23°C to 28°C. The areas having distinct winter
season is considered best for increasing yield and improving quality. High
temperature at the time of fruit development causes fruit drop.

6.2.4 Commercial Varieties

Salient characteristics of some important guava cultivars are given below:
6.2.4.1 Allahabad Safeda
This is the most popular cultivar of Uttar Pradesh. Tree vigorous, medium
tall, branching heavy with dense foliage, tendency to produce long shoots,
crown broad and compact. Fruits medium, average weight 180 g, roundish in
shape, skin colour yellowish white, keeping quality good.
6.2.4.2 Lucknow-49
It is a selection made at Poona, also
known as “Sardar Guava”. Semi-
dwarf tree, vigorous, heavy branching
type with flat crown, leaves large,
Fruits roundish ovate in shape, skin
colour primrose-yellow with
occasional red dots on the skin, taste sweet and keeping quality excellent.
6.2.4.3 Banarsi
This is one of the sweetest guavas, lacking acidity. Tree medium to tall, crown
broad, leaves long, oblong in shape with acute apex and base obtuse. Fruits
round and dresden-yellow in colour, keeping quality medium.
6.2.4.4 Apple Colour
Tree medium, crown broad, spreading
growth, Fruits spherical in shape,
dawn-pink in colour with deep minute
dots on the surface, taste sweet and
keeping quality good.
154
6.2.4.5 Chittidar Guava and
Pomegranate
Very popular in Uttar Pradesh. Trees are like Allahabad Safeda. Fruits are
round with yellow straw coloured skin having red dots. Flesh is whitish, TSS
8.5 per cent and vitamin C content 240 mg/100 g, taste sweet and keeping
quality good.
6.2.4.6 Seedless
A tall tree with rather long trunk, upright branches, leaves large, oblong in
shape. Fruits oblong to globose in shape, straw-yellow in colour, flesh thick
and creamy white in colour, keeping quality excellent.

6.2.5 Hybrids of Guava

Table 2 : Showing hybrid of guava developed by different
Research Centre in India.

Centre Hybrids Parents Characteristics

FRS, Safed Jam Allahabad Fruits large, seeds soft,
Sangareddy Safeda x Kohir
keeping quality good,
more ascorbic acid.
Kohir Safeda Kohir x Fruits large, flesh white,
Allahabad Safeda seeds soft, yield and
fruit quality better than
parents
IIHR, Hybrid-1 Seedless x Semi-vigorous, heavy
Bangalore Allahabad Safeda yielder, fruit medium,
flesh white, soft seeds
quality good, stored for
long time.
Hybrid 16-1 Apple colour x Semi-vigorous,
Allahabad Safeda moderate yield, fruit
skin bright red, flesh
firm, good keeping
quality
CISH, CISH G-1 Seedling Fruits deep red, uniform
Lucknow Selection size, attractive shape,
soft seeds, TSS 15oBrix,
long shelf life
CISH G-2 Seedling Fruits attractive and
Selection medium, colour
crimson with white
stripes, weight upto
150g, sub-globose
shape, TSS 12oBrix

155
Sub Tropical Fruits CCS HAU, Hisar Safeda Allahabad Safeda Growth upright, fruits
Hisar x Seedless round, weighing upto
92 g, pulp creamy-
white, seeds soft, TSS
13.4 %, ascorbic acid
185 mg/100 g
Hisar Surkha Apple Colour x Growth spreading, fruit
Banarasi Surkha round, weighing 86g,
pulp pink, TSS 13.6 %,
acidity 0.48 %, ascorbic
acid 169mg / 100g

6.2.6 Planting
Before planting, the field should be deeply ploughed, harrowed, cleaned and
leveled. The pits of about 1 metre cube (1 x 1 x 1 m) should be dug before the
monsoon, at appropriate distance in the square system of planting, and left
exposed for about a fortnight. After 15 to 20 days, the pits should be refilled
with 25 to 30 kg of decomposed farmyard manure mixed with surface soil.
Traditionally guava is planted at a spacing of 5 x 5 m or 6 x 6 m
accommodating 278 to 400 plants per hectare, in a square system of planting.
The distance between the trees has a profound influence on growth, yield
and fruit quality. The best time for planting of guava is the beginning of rainy
season. The soil should be well pressed to keep the plants firmly in position.

6.2.7 Propagation
Guava is propagated by Asexual / Vegetative method of propagation and by
seeds / sexual method of propagation.
6.2.7.1 Asexual/Vegetative Methods
Guava seedling trees exhibit lot of variations in quality of the fruits, therefore,
it is necessary to propagate guava by vegetative methods viz. layering, grafting,
budding, cutting and stooling.
i) Air layering : In this method, one year old shoots of 1.25 cm or more in
diameter are girdled by removing about 3 cm long ring of bark from the
previous year’s growth. The girdled area is then covered with moist soil
or sphagnum moss and wrapped with a polythene film and tied securely
at both ends. Rooting takes place within 4-6 weeks. When the roots grow
out through the ball of moss, remove the polythene film and the rooted
layers are separated from the mother plant and is potted, and kept in the
shade until new leaves appear. Rainy season appears to be the best time
for air layering. Where climate is mild, air layering can be done in spring
also. Application of growth regulators (IBA or NAA at 5000 ppm) at the
upper cut end of the ring usually promotes better rooting.
ii) Grafting : Inarching is quite common and highly successful in guava.
Veneer grafting has also been found simple and successful. For veneer
grafting, the scion is taken from one-month old shoots, duly defoliated
156
 for forcing the buds. About 3-5 cm long shoots with one or two buds are Guava and
used for grafting. Pomegranate

For raising rootstock seedlings, seeds are extracted from the healthy fruits
and are sown in nursery or polythene bags. The seedlings become ready
for grafting or as rootstock in 45 to 60 days or so. However, usually one
year old seedlings are preferred for grafting.
iii) Stooling : Stooling is practiced for quick multiplication of desired varieties
or rootstocks. In this method, 3-5 year old air-layered plants are beheaded
just near the ground in the month of March. When new shoots emerge,
these are ringed at the base, treated with 5000 ppm IBA in lanolin paste
and earthed up to cover the ringed part in the month of July - August. The
rooted shoot may be separated and planted in nursery or in pots in
September - October. This method is easy and a plot of 4-5 m2 can yield
about 300 rooted plants each year.
6.2.7.2 Sexual/by seed Method
In many parts of India it is still a practice to raise commercial orchards from
seeds. But seedling plants usually show a lot of variation in fruit size, shape
and quality, although such plants may be long-lived. Sexual method of
propagation generally used to breed new hybrids and good varieties. By
crossing to different lines hybrid seeds are produced and sown in field for
assessment of new hybrid or better varieties for future.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: a) Space is given below for the answer.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
1. Which method of propagation is commercially employed in guava ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. Write the characteristics features of Kohir Safeda, CISH G-2 and Hisar
Surkha hybrids.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
3. What are the soil and climatic requirements of guava ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
157
Sub Tropical Fruits 6.2.8 Nutritional Requirement
Guava is very responsive to the application of inorganic fertilizers, along
with organic manures. However, the amount of the manures and fertilizers
that is to be applied depends upon the age of the plant, fertility status of soil,
climate conditions and management practices. The general doses at various
ages of manures and fertilizers given to guava crop for obtaining higher fruit
yield and better quality fruits is as follows.
Table 3 : Nutritional requirement for different age plants of guava.

Age of FYM Nitrogen Phosphorous Potassium

plant (yrs) (kg) (g) (g) (g)
1–2 10 – 15 60 30 30
3 20 120 60 60
4 30 180 90 90
5 40 240 120 120
6 50 300 150 150
7 & above 60 360 180 180
Farmyard manure should be applied in May. Half of the inorganic fertilizers
should be applied in May - June and remaining half in September - October.
Guava sometimes suffers from deficiency of zinc and boron. Spraying the
trees twice with 450 g zinc sulphate mixed with 300 g slaked lime dissolved
in 73 litres of water cure zinc deficiency. First spray should be done in June–
July and second in August - September. Two sprays of boron (5 g per litre of
water) first in June–July and second in August -September were effective in
curing boron deficiency.

6.2.9 Cultural Practices

To develop good guava orchard all the following essential cultural operations
should be done time to time.
6.2.9.1 Irrigation
Guava trees can withstand prolonged drought if grown on deep soil with
good water holding capacity. However, drought tolerance capacity varies,
with cultivars. The young trees should be irrigated at regular intervals during
lean periods. In the early stage, plants require 8 to 10 irrigations a year, while
full grown bearing trees require watering during April to June at bi-weekly
intervals to secure fruit set and to reduce fruit drop. Irrigation during winter
has been found to be effective in reducing fruit drop and improving fruit size
of winter crop. The amount of water to be supplied depends on rainfall, evapo-
transpiration and soil type. Timely irrigation helps to get high yield and results
in improved fruit quality. Crop regulation in guava is possible by regulating
irrigation.
6.2.9.2 Training and Pruning
Training is done in guava to provide a strong framework and scaffold of
branches suitable for bearing a heavy remunerative crop without damaging
158
the branches. Care must be taken to prevent criss-crossing of primary branches Guava and
in the initial years of planting. In case of varieties with spreading habit like Pomegranate
“Sardar” guava, primary branches are allowed at least 75 cm above ground
level. The flowers and fruits in guava are borne on current season’s growth,
hence a light annual pruning is considered necessary to encourage new shoots
after the harvest. Dead, diseased, intercrossing branches and suckers coming
up from the base and sides of the framework should be pruned back annually.
6.2.9.3 Intercropping
In the early stages of establishment of guava orchard till the bearing, the
interspace can be economically utilized by growing suitable intercrops.
Intercropping with vegetables can fetch better returns to the growers besides
generating more employment. In a crop combination involving several
plantation crops, vegetables and leguminous crops like cocoa, pineapple,
peas, cowpea, gram, beans are considered as compatible intercrops.
6.2.9.4 Regulation of flowering
In northern India, guava flowers twice
a year and three times in a year in
southern part of the country. When
guava tree flowers in spring season
(February-March), this flowering is
known as Ambe bahar, fruit ripens in
rainy season, which are insipid,
watery, poor in quality. The flowering
produces in monsoon season (June -
July) is known as Mrig bahar and fruit
matures in winter season. The fruits
are excellent in quality and sometimes guava tree produces flowers in October,
this is known as Hasth bahar. The fruit ripens from February to April. The
quality of fruit is good but yield is low. However, it fetches good price, but
this bahar is not very common in guava. Hasth bahar is observed in Western
and Southern India.
Mrig bahar is preferred over Ambe bahar and Hasth bahar. Therefore it
becomes necessary to regulate flowering so that Mrig bahar can produce
heavy flowering and fruits are available in winter. The crop can be regulated
by: i) restricted the irrigation from February to mid May, doing so tree sheds
their leaves due to hot season and goes to rest. During rest period, tree can
conserve food material in its branches. In the month of June tree is well
cultivated and manured followed by irrigation. After about 20 to 25 days the
tree would blaze into profuse blossoms. The fruits mature during winter. ii)
roots are exposed to sun by removing the upper soil around the trunk, which
result in reduction in supply of soil moisture from the soil to the top, therefore
leaves shed and trees goes to rest. After 3 - 4 weeks the exposed roots are
covered with soil, manured and watered the trees.
Deblossoming can be done with the use of growth regulators. Naphthalene
acetic acid @ 600 ppm during May when maximum flowers are opened is
effective. Deblossoming can also be done manually on small scale.
159
Sub Tropical Fruits 6.2.10 Insect-pests and Diseases
The Guava plants attacked by several insects and disease time to time, which
have been describe as below.
6.2.10.1 Insect-pests
i) Fruit fly (Chaetodacus sp.) : It is one of the major pests of guava that
causes serious loss to fruits. The adults lay eggs on the fruit surface,
during monsoon. On hatching, the maggots bore and enter into the fruit,
and in most cases fruit drop occurs. The fruit fly punctures the fruit near
maturity and spoils them.
For its control, avoid taking the rainy season crop which is very heavily
attacked by this pest. Spraying the tree during pre-oviposition period with
Dimethoate (0.03 %) or Malathion (0.05 %) and burning of infected fruits
reduce the incidence.
ii) Mealy bug (Cryptolemus sp.) : Guava has been reported to be attacked
by mango and citrus mealy bug. The tiny small bug suck sap from young
leaves twigs and flowers etc. The affected parts dry up and the yield is
commercially reduced.
Treatment of soil at the base of the tree with Aldrin, Malahion or Thimmet
is effective and banding the base of the plant with polythene film will
prevent the nymph to climb up from the soil. Spraying of several
insecticides viz. Choropyriphos (0.08 %), Monocrotophos (0.08 %),
Carbaryl (0.2 %) etc. have been reported to controlling infesting guava
mealy bug.
iii) Bark eating caterpillar (Indarbela quadrinotata) : The moth lays egg
under loose bark and larvae on hatching eat up the bark and bore into the
trunk. Infestation is more in old and neglected orchards. “Seedless” and
“Apple Colour” cultivars are more susceptible than “Allahabad Safeda”.
The infestation can be reduced by keeping the orchard clean. The larvae
can be killed by inserting wire in the holes.
6.2.10.2 Diseases
Amongst the diseases, most damaging to guava are the wilt and anthracnose,
other important diseases are fruit canker, cercospora leaf spot etc.
i) Guava wilt : It is caused by fungi Fusarium solani, Macrophomina
phascolina. This is a serious disease occurring in Northern and Eastern
India. It is characterized by the yellowing of leaves followed by drying of
leaves and twigs from the tip and complete wilting of trees within 10 to
15 days. The leaves drop down pre-maturely and the fruit size becomes
smaller. The incidence is more severe during rainy season.
It is better to remove such trees as soon as the symptoms are discovered
along with the neighboring trees so as to prevent the spread of the disease.
The infection can effectively be minimized by drenching the soil with
Brassicol and spraying the plant with Bavistin (0.1 %) at an interval of
160
 15 days at the early stage of infection. Grow resistant varieties like Guava and
“Allahabad Safeda”, “Banarsi”, “Supreme” etc. Pomegranate

ii) Anthracnose (Gloesporium psidii) : Guava crop is seriously damaged

in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Karnataka. The disease attacks all parts of
plants except roots. The growing
tip of affected plants turns dark
brown and the black, necrotic
areas extend backward, causing
dieback of plants. There is an
appearance of small spots of the
size of pin-head on fruit especially
during monsoon. Later several
spots coalesce to form bigger
lesions. On the tips and margins
of the leaves spots are grey in colour. The cool season (January to March)
and hot, dry weather (from April to June) prevent the spread of infection.
Prune affected twigs and destroy them. Spray with Copper oxychloride
or Zineb at 0.2 per cent or Difolatan (0.3 %). Follow scientific management
practices. Control post harvest decay of fruits by dipping them in
Thiabendazole and Aureofungin solutions. Grow guava variety “Apple
Colour” which is moderately tolerant.
iii) Guava fruit canker (Pestalotia psidii) : Infection causes appearance of
minute, brown or rust-coloured, unbroken circular necrotic corky
cankerous growth on young immature fruits. The spots are shallow on
the surface of the skin, but the market value of the fruit is reduced because
fruits become disfigured and hard. Infected fruits loose ascorbic acid
rapidly. The disease is serious during rainy season. The optimum
temperature for growth and sporulation was 25 to 30°C.
Spray 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture or Zineb (0.2 %). Take Mrig bahar
crop only which would ripen in the dry winter months. Post harvest wash
with Aureofungin (1200 ppm) can protects fruits for 5 days. Plant only
resistant variety like “Allahabad Safeda” and “Apple Colour”.
iv) Cercospora leaf spot (Cercospora sawadae) : The affected leaves show
brown water soaked patches, on their under surface. Old leaves are mostly
affected and drop off. Disease becomes severe from December to February.
Spray Copper oxychloride at 0.3 per cent or lime sulphur at the ratio of
(1:30).

6.2.11 Harvesting
Seedling guava trees require 4 to 5 years to bear, while vegetatively propagated
plants starts bearing in 3-4 years. Guava fruits require 22 weeks from full
bloom to maturity. Harvesting should be done when the fruits reach full
maturity or half ripe stage. Fully ripe fruits are easily damaged during post
harvest handling and rot quickly. The fruits turn greenish yellow, with the
advancement of maturity. Individual hand picking at regular intervals is
suggested to avoid possible damage to fruits and plant. Harvesting by shaking, 161
Sub Tropical Fruits must be avoided because the fruits are delicate at ripe stage. Mature or half
ripe fruits have better shelf life, than ripe fruits. The yield varies in different
cultivars and with the care and management of orchard, age of the plant and
season of cropping. The average yield per tree estimated to be 90 kg from the
seedling tree and 350 kg from the grafted plants.

6.2.12 Storage
Guava fruit is highly perishable in nature, it should be marketed immediately
after harvest. Under ordinary conditions mature guava fruits can only be stored
for 2-3 days. The shelf life of guava fruit at ambient condition is relatively
short due to rapid development of fungal rots. Storage can be prolonged for
20-25 days at 10°C. Shelf life of guava fruits has also been found to increase
for 10-12 days, when they are dipped for five minutes in a solution of NAA
at 150 ppm, and packed in 150 gauge polythene bags with vents. Pre-harvest
sprays of Calcium nitrate (1.5 %) and Alar (750 ppm) were effective for
marketability of fruits for more than 8 days.

6.2.13 Packaging and Transportation

After harvesting, the fruits are packed in wooden boxes or bamboo baskets
and transported to the market or processing units. For long duration transport,
a layer of cushion material (dry grass, paddy straw, paper wool etc.) should
be used at the bottom of the container. Refrigerated transport can reduce the
spoilage of fruits. Fruits positioned in the natural posture with the pedicel
end vertically upward during transport showed better keeping quality than
fruits kept in the reverse or horizontal position. Individual wrapped fruits
showed less water loss and decay than fruits packed without wrapping.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note: a) Space is given below for the answer.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
1. What are the control measures of guava wilt and guava fruit canker ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. Which bahar (flowering) is preferred in guava and how it is
regulated ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

6.3 POMEGRANATE (PUNICA GRANATUM L.)

162
Pomegranate fruits are favourate table fruits. The fresh fruit is of exquisite
quality while its processed products like bottle used, syrups and jelly are Guava and
highly appreciated. Pomegranate

6.3.1 Area and Production

The pomegranate is grown in an area of 233.93 thousand ha, with an annual
production of 2844.52 thousand mt., in the country. The leading producer
state of pomegranate is Maharashtra with an annual production of 1789.46
thousand mt. from an area of 147.91 thousand ha. followed by Gujarat (461.75
thousand mt.) and Karanataka (268.23 thousand mt.). The cultivation of
pomegranate has also been initiated on small scale in countries like China,
Japan, Burma, California, USSR and Pakistan.
Table 3: Statewise area, production and productivity in
total of pomegranate during 2017-18.

Sl. State Area Production Productivity

No. (000 ha.) (000 mt.) ha/mt
1 Maharashtra 147.91 1789.46 12.10
2 Gujarat 30.51 461.75 15.13
3 Karnataka 25.97 268.23 10.33
4 Andhra Pradesh 7.47 139.02 14.69
5 Madhya Pradesh 9.68 114.27 11.81
6 Rajasthan 4.44 26.58 5.99
7 Telangana 1.49 19.87 13.36
8 Tamil Nadu 0.56 13.06 23.39
9 Chhatisgarh 0.76 44.34 5.69
10 Himachal Pradesh 2.77 3.15 1.14
11 Others 0.36 1.59 4.42
Total 233.93 2844.52 118.05

6.3.2 Soil
The pomegranate is not very particular about its soil requirement and can be
grown on diverse types of soils. The tree gives very good yield in deep loamy
or alluvial soil, although it thrives well on comparatively poor soils, where
other fruits fail to flourish. It can tolerate soils which are limy and slightly
alkaline, though it can also be grow in medium to light black soils at least 60
cm depth. It is a salty hardy fruit tree.

6.3.3 Climate
Pomegranate is grown throughout the tropics and subtropics; the best quality
fruit is obtained in semi-arid regions, where the temperature during the
ripening season is relatively high. It can grow in the plains as well as on the
hills up to an elevation of about 1850 metres. Under temperate climate,
pomegranate behaves as deciduous but in subtropical and tropical climate it
behaves as an evergreen or partially deciduous. The tree requires hot and dry
climate during the period of fruit development and ripening. The optimum
163
Sub Tropical Fruits temperature for fruit development is 38°C. Pomegranate is hardy fruit and
can thrive well under drought conditions. However, the plant bears well only
under irrigation. Aridity and frequent anomalies of the climate cause leaf
shedding and fruit cracking.

6.3.4 Commercial Varieties

Brief characters of important cultivars are given below:
6.3.4.1 Ganesh
Ganesh is a seedling selection by Dr.
G. S. Cheema at Pune. It is a selection
from Alandi and considered to be the
best variety. The fruit is medium in
size. It has soft seeds. Ganesh is a high
yielding variety and is a good cropper.
The flesh is pinkish and has juice with
agreeable taste.
6.3.4.2 Alandi
It is commonly grown in Maharashtra (Pune) and Gujarat. Fruit are of medium
size. Blood red or deep pink flesh with sweet slightly acidic juice. The seeds
are very hard.
6.3.4.3 Kandhari
It produces large fruit. The rind is deep red. The flesh is dark red or deep
pink. The juice is slightly acidic. The seed are hard. It is successfully grown
in Himachal Pradesh.
6.3.4.4 Dholka
It is commonly grown in Gujarat. It bears large fruit, the colour of the rind is
greenish white and the flesh pinkish white. The seeds are very soft and the
juice is sweet.
6.3.4.5 Jalore Seedless
It is developed by Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur for arid
regions as the fruit maturity is early and maximum fruit production is coincided
with available Monsoon soil moisture. The fruits are large in size weighing
200 g on an average. Fruits are attractive in appearance. The skin colour is
pink red. The arils are pink to red having soft seeds.
6.3.4.6 Mridula
Seedling selection from open
pollinated progeny raised from F1
population of cross between Ganesh
x Gul-e-Shah. Medium sized smooth
skinned fruits with blood red coloured
juice and sweet aril with very soft
seeds. Released from MPKV,
Maharashtra.
164
The other cultivars grown in the country are Muscat, Nabha, Ruby, Paper Guava and
Shell, Kabul, Jodhpur Red, Wonderful, Bedana, Jyothi, Daru (wild, non-edible Pomegranate
and yields well known condiment Anardana).
6.3.5 Planting
The layout is done following square to hexagonal system. The size of the pit
should be 60 x 60 x 60 cm. Pits should be filled with 22 - 25 kg of farmyard
manure or compost, 1 kg of super phosphate and good soil moisture. The
plants are planted at the distance of 6 x 6 m apart in square system and it will
accommodate 275 plants per hectare. In higher but deeper soil, the planting
distance can be reduced to 5 x 5 m.
It was also recommended that for higher yields for the first four to five years
after planting, a distance of 5 x 2 m may be adopted and alternate plants may
be removed after wards maintaining a planting distance of 5 x 4 m. The best
time of planting pomegranate in North India is dormant period i.e. January to
mid February and in South India during monsoon season.
6.3.6 Propagation
Pomegranate is propagated by Asexual/Vegetative method of propagation as
- root suckers, cutting and layering, and by sexual method of propagation by
seeds. True to type plants are not obtained from the seeds. Such plants vary
widely and are undesirable. Thus they must be raised vegetatively. Vegetative
means of propagation are:
6.3.6.1 Asexual/Vegetative Method
True to type plants are obtained through this method of prorogation. The
method of Asexual / Vegetative means of propagation are :
i) Stem cuttings : Prior to taking shoots for preparing cuttings, high yielding
plants are selected. Cuttings are prepared (20-25 cm long) from the fully
mature shoots of about one year old. The time of planting of cuttings for
rooting is spring in North India and during the monsoon in South India.
Cuttings are planted in polythene bags or pots or in nursery beds. Rooting
take place 15-20 days after planting. Application of IBA at 2000 ppm by
quick dip method has been suggested for better rooting in hardwood
cuttings, under mist. The plants are usually ready for transplanting within
8 to 9 months.
Pomegranate may also be propagated by air layering or goottee. Rooting
has been found to increase with the application of IBA at 10,000 ppm in
lanolin. For air layering, rainy season is the best period to get maximum
percentage of rooted layers. The survival of rooted layers in the field is
poor.
ii) Air layering or goottee : Pomegranate may also be propagated by this
method. Rooting has been found to increase with the application of IBA
at 10000 ppm in lanolin. For air layering, rainy season is the best period
to get maximum percentage of rooted layers. Plant serival of rooted layers
may be poor in the field, if proper environmental condition will not
provided. 165
Sub Tropical Fruits 6.3.6.2 Sexual/by seed Method
It takes place with the help of seed. The seed propagated plants do not produce
true to type plants. This method of propagation generally used to breed new
hybrids or varieties by cross pollinations. Seed obtained through this method
are known as hybrid seeds which are sown in the nursery and planted to the
field after one year for assessment / selection of desirable hybrids or varieties.
These hybrids or varieties propagated by vegetative method of propagation
on large scales to get true to type plants of these varieties / hybrids.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

Note: a) Space is given below for the answer.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
1. What are the uses of pomegranate ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. What is the commercial method of propagating pomegranate ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
6.3.7 Nutritional Requirements
Even though pomegranate grows well in low fertility soils, production can
be increased by application of manures and fertilizers. Apart from using
organic manure in the pit before planting, about 20 kg farmyard manure should
be incorporated around a bearing tree at the onset of Monsoon. Application
of 20 kg FYM and ash per plant at the beginning of monsoon was beneficial.
Application of 50 kg FYM and 3 to 5 kg oil cake or 1 kg of sulplate of
ammonia prior to flowering improves healthy growth and higher fruiting.
The following schedule to be optimum for good growth and economic
production.
Table 4 : Nutritional requirements according to age of plants,
for good growth and production.

Age FYM Nitrogen Phosphorous Potassium

(year) (kg) (g) (g) (g)
1 10 250 125 125
2 20 250 125 125
3 30 500 250 250
4 & above 50 625 300 300
In northern parts, manures are applied during February, whereas in other
166 areas, manuring may be just before the start of monsoon in case of young
plants. The manures and fertilizers are applied in the basins, one metre away Guava and
from the trunk at the time of bahar treatment, in split doses, in case of bearing Pomegranate
orchard.
6.3.8 Cultural Practices
The essential cultural practices for Pomegranate fruit plants are as below:
6.3.8.1 Irrigation
Pomegranate is considered a drought hardy fruit. Irrigation is given to obtain
higher yields, quality fruits and to regulate cropping. The newly transplanted
plants require regular irrigation, so that the roots become well established
and the plants can start growth. Full bearing trees are irrigated through basin
system. After the plants are well established, in about 6 months, they can
stand considerable amount of drought and irrigation may be given at intervals
of 2 to 4 weeks depending upon the soil, climate, weather conditions and
intercrops grown. Regular irrigation is essential from flowering to ripening
of fruits, as irregular moisture condition results in dropping of flowers and
development of cracks on mature fruits.
6.3.8.2 Intercropping
Intercropping in pomegranate orchard is highly desirable, because it takes
about 6 to 7 year to come to commercial bearing. Vegetables viz. cabbage,
cauliflower, tomato, radish, cucurbits, moong, peas, beans or green manure
crops, can only be followed in pomegranate orchard. Inter-crops can be
continued for another 3 to 4 years after the plants had started bearing. It is
best to grow a green manure crop during the monsoon and burry it in the
orchard, when it has complete its vegetative phase and started flowering.
6.3.8.3 Training and Pruning
i) Training : Training of pomegranate plants is important to allow certain
number of shoots/stems per hill. Pomegranate may be trained as Multi
stemmed tree, in this case 3 to 4 stems are left at a hill and remaining
shoots are removed, this will give a bushy form look to the resultant tree.
In Maharashtra, the growers prefer multi-stem training by retaining all
stems, but yield has not been found to be affected by number of stems per
plant.
Single stemmed tree, in this the single stem is left by removing all the
side shoots at the time of planting. The main stem is headed back at a
height of about one metre results in the formation of branches. Four to
five well distributed branches on all side above 60 to 70 cm from the
ground level are allowed to grow. In the third year of planting one can
maintain desired stage of the pomegranate. Single stemmed tree has
tendency to produce less number of shoots.
ii) Pruning : Pomegranate does not usually require pruning except for
removed of suckers, dead and diseased branches. It is essential to remove
the suckers as soon as they arise. The flowers and fruits are borne
terminally on short spurs produced all along the slow growing mature
wood. Annual pruning in winter during dormant period should be confined 167
Sub Tropical Fruits to shortening of the previous season growth to encourage fruiting. Careless
pruning would result in the reduction of fruit bearing area.
6.3.8.4 Crop Regulation
Pomegranate flowers in spring in north India, and almost throughout the
year in Central and South India. The monsoon flowering (June - July) is
known as Mrig bahar, the late autumn flowering (September - October) is
Hasth bahar and the spring flowering (February - March) is known as Ambe
bahar. Only one bahar is taken to get high quality fruits in the desired season.
This also helps in maintaining the plant vigour. For this purpose, the roots
are exposed well before the flowering season and irrigation as well as
manuring is withheld during this period. As a result flowering is prevented.
However, flowering is induced at the desired season by applying proper
irrigation and fertilizers. Mrig bahar is taken in Deccan areas where water
is so scarce during the hot weather. Ambe bahar is taken in the areas where
enough water is available during hot wheather. Ambe bahar has been found
to be better treatment then Mrig bahar. Hasth bahar is taken seldom, because
during the dormant season of this bahar i.e. August-September there is heavy
rains.

6.3.9 Insect-pests and Diseases

6.3.9.1 Insect-pests
Pomegranate is attacked by a large number of pests, fruits being more
vulnerable than any other parts.
i) Pomegranate butterfly or Anar
fruit fly or Fruit borer
(Virachola isocrates) : This is a
serious pest found all over India.
Infestation starts from flowering
to button stage. The female lays
egg on calyx of flowers and small
fruits. On hatching caterpillars
bore inside the developing fruits
and feed inside. Such infested
fruits may also invaded by bacteria
and fungi and causing fruit to rot.
Affected fruits fall down. They are
not fit for consumption.
Remove and destroy all the affected fruits. Spray with 3-4 times with
Carbaryl (0.2 %) at 20-25 days intervals starting from the initiation of the
incidence will control the pest. Young fruits should be bagged in coarse
cloth or polythene (300 gauge) for checking the attack of pest.
ii) Bark eating caterpillar (Inderbela tetraonis) : This insect bore the bark
and feed inside old trees and those not maintained well are more prone to
the attack of this pest. Usually there is only one caterpillar in each hole
but there may be 10-12 holes in a badly infested tree and such trees bear
168 no fruit.
 Keeping the orchard clean and avoiding overcrowding of trees help to Guava and
minimize the attack by this pest. In case of infestation, the affected portion Pomegranate
requires to be cleaned by removing all webs etc. and in each hole a swab
of cotton wool soaked in Carbon bisulphide, Petrol or even Kerosene
should be inserted and the holes sealed with mud.
iii) Stem borer (Aleurodes sp.) : The
caterpillar of this pest makes a
hole and bores through the main
trunk or main branches. The
presence of the pest can easily be
seen by a small hole on the bark
and a network or garland of dried
excreta outside the hole. It comes
out at night and feeds on the bark.
Controlled by cleaning the hole and extracting the insects by inserting a
hooked wire into the hole. The measures suggested for controlling the
bark eating caterpillars are also effective in controlling the beetles as
well.
iv) Sap sucking insects : Mealy bugs, scales, white flies, thrips, aphids,
mites are some of the insects reported from various parts of India on
pomegranate leaves. Due to the damage by these insects, the trees are
devitalized and shed off buds and flowers and small fruits.
To prevent the spread of mealy bugs and scale insects, the affected parts
should be pruned and destroyed in the initial stage of attack. If the
infestation become severe, spraying with 0.1 per cent Malathion was found
effective. White flies and aphids can be controlled by 0.03 per cent
Dimethoate or Phosphomidon. Mites are controlled by 0.05 per cent
Kelthane or 0.03 per cent dicofol.
6.3.9.2 Diseases
Pomegranate suffers from a number of disease viz. fruit spot, leaf spot, fruit
rot etc.
i) Fruit spot (Drechslora rostrata) : This is a fungal disease. Affected fruits
develop small irregular spots surrounded by greenish yellow border
making the appearance of fruit less attractive. In severe infestation the
discoloration of the surface slowly extends to inner tissues and even up
to seeds, causing aril the brownish in colour. Such fruits are not edible.
The occurrence of this disease could be prevented by pruning the dead
and affected twigs or branches. Spraying with Mancozeb or Captan 500
g in 200 litre of water after fruit formation is recommended.
ii) Fruit rot (Phomopsis sp.) : Affected flowers fail to set fruit and young
fruits may drop. Symptoms appear with yellow or black spots all over the
fruit. Affected fruits are of no use. The disease spreads through the seeds
of affected fruits. The incidence is wide spread during rainy season.
Remove all affected twigs, fruits and burn them. Spray Zineb at 0.2 per 169
Sub Tropical Fruits cent at 15 days interval depending upon the intensity of incidence.
iii) Leaf spot (Xanthomonas punicae, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) :
The former pathogen is bacterium and latter is a fungal. The incidence of
the Xanthomonas punicae causes irregular water soaked spots on leaves.
They are light brown to dark brown in appearance. Usually spots do
not appear on twigs, branches or fruits. The leaf spots causes by
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides are minute violet black or black spots
on leaf. The spots coalesce and form bigger spots and then affected part
falls off.
Collect fallen leaves and fruits and destroy them. Spray Mancozeb or
Captan 0.2 per cent at 15 days intervals.

6.3.10 Physiological Disorder

Pomegranate suffers by physiological disorders as below:
6.3.10.1 Cracking or Splitting of Fruits
Cracking of fruits is serious problem
in pomegranate which occurs more
frequently in dry atmosphere of the
arid regions. The cracked fruits though
sweeter, lose keeping quality and are
unfit for shipment and are liable to rot.
The cracked fruits are also liable to
be invaded by certain fungi and
bacteria. This disorder is reported be
due to sudden change in the soil moisture content, at the time of fruit ripening,
if the soils becomes too dry and then irrigated heavily, cracking may
result. Other reasons of fruit cracking are increase in air atmosphere,
deficiencies of calcium and boron. This malady is also varietal character, it
was least in Karkai, Bedana, Khog, Jalore Seedless, Guleshah and more in
Jodhpuri. The fruits of Mrig bahar are more prone to cracking then the fruits
of other bahar.
Adequate and regular irrigation and intercultural throughout the bearing period
may reduce cracking. The application of 5 per cent Pinhole as vapor guard
(an anti-transparent) 4 to 5 weeks before harvest reduced fruit splitting. Spray
borax at 0.1 per cent. Spray with GA3 at 250 ppm in the month of June. Plant
windbreaks around the pomegranate plantation.

6.3.11 Harvesting
Pomegranate is a non-climacteric fruits. Its fruits are ready for harvest 5 to 7
months after the appearance of blossoms. They are harvested when the skin
turns slightly yellow and the fruit gives a metallic sound when tapped. The
ratio of soluble solids to total acid was considered to be the best chemical
criterion of maturity for harvesting. The fruits are harvested with the help of
secateurs. The trees began to bear fruit in the fourth year when a small crop
of 20-25 fruits per tree may be harvested. The average yield in well managed
170
plantation may be as much as 200-250 fruits per tree.
6.3.12 Storage Guava and
Pomegranate
Pomegranate fruits keep well for a long time. The fruits kept well for two
months at 0oC, for one month at 4.5oC and for 15 days at room temperature.
Fruits treated with bavistin (0.2 %) and storage in polythene bag (100 gauge)
prolonged the shelf life up to 30 days at room temperature. The fruits stored
at 0oC and 4.5oC and at an 80 to 85 per cent relative humidity did not undergo
any shrinkage or spoilage for seven months. They may be sprayed with two
per cent lypol solution and aerated properly before using. The fruits dipped
in bavistin at 0.05 or 0.1 per cent and topsin 0.1 per cent, the post harvest
fungal rot will not appear up to 10 days of storage. In bulk storage, the fruit
may be packed in layers in wooden crates and stored at 0oC and 80 per cent
relative humidity using rice straw or paper as packing material.

6.3.13 Packaging and Transportation

After harvesting, sorting of fruits should be exercised to remove undesirable
fruits. The healthy fruits are packed mostly in bamboo baskets and wooden
crates containing 10-12 kg with padding of paddy straw or dry grasses.
For distant markets the fruits packed in bamboo baskets and wooden crates
are preferred because the fruits can be transported without any loss. For local
markets the fruits packed in wooden baskets are liked by the consumers.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

Note : a) Space is given below for the answer.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
1. What are the main causes of fruit cracking in pomegranate ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. Write a short note on training methods in pomegranate.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
3. Differentiate between fruit spot and Leaf spot disease.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

6.4 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you have studied about the importance, soil, climate and nutritional 171
Sub Tropical Fruits requirements, commercial varieties and hybrids, planting and propagation
methods, cultural practices done in the maintenance of orchards, crop
regulation, symptoms and control measures of different insect-pests, diseases
and physiological disorders, maturity indices, harvesting, storing, packaging
and processing techniques of guava and pomegranate. As both the crops
propagated in sub-tropical region, required deep, friable and well drained
soil and tolerate temperature up to 38oC. Getting a desired crop of good yield
and better quality fruits from these crops, you have to adopt proper cultural
practices in both the crop. Cracking is the main problem in pomegranate
other than a lot of insect-pest and diseases which attack on both the crops.

6.5 KEY WORDS

Bahar treatment : Regulation of flowering and fruiting in fruit
crops, which flower more than once a year, by
cultural, mechanical and chemical means.
Cracking : A disorder where fruit surface cracks mainly
due to heavy irrigation or rain after long dry
spell.
Deblossoming : Removal of flowers from the plant to reduce
the crop load, done either by withholding water
or by spraying of chemicals or mechanical
means.

6.6 FURTHER REFERENCES

1. Mitra, S.K. and Bose, T.K. (1985). Guava In: Fruits of India. Tropical
and Sub-tropical (ed. T.K. Bose) Naya Prokash, Calcutta.
2. Patil, A.V. and Kavale, A.R. (1985). Pomegranate In: Fruits of India.
Tropical and Sub-tropical (ed. T.K. Bose) Naya Prokash, Calcutta.
3. Singh, S., Krishnamurthy, S. and Katyal, S.L. (1967). Fruit Culture in
India. ICAR, New Delhi.

6.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. Guava is commercially propagated by air layering. One year old shoots
of previous year growth is selected which is 1.25 cm in diameter and is
girdled by removing about 3 cm long ring of bark. The girdled area is
then covered with moist soil or sphagnum moss and wrapped with a
polythene film and tied securely at both ends. Rooting takes place within
4-6 weeks. The rooted air layers is separated from the mother plant and
planted in the pot or in the nursery. Rainy season appears to be the best
time for air layering. Application of growth regulators (IBA or NAA at
5000 ppm) promotes better rooting.
172
2. Kohir Safeda: Fruits large, flesh white, seeds soft, yield and fruit quality Guava and
better than parents. Pomegranate

CISH G-2: Fruits attractive and medium, colour crimson with white
stripes, weight upto 150 g, sub-globose shape, TSS 12oBrix.
Hisar Surkha: Growth spreading, fruit round, weighing 86 g, pulp pink,
TSS 13.6 %, acidity 0.48 %, ascorbic acid 169 mg/100 g.
3. Guava plants require heavy clay soils to very light sandy soils. The best
soil must be deep, friable, well drained and pH ranging from 4.5 to 7.5 is
beneficial. Guava plants are sensitive to water logging hence soil should
be well drained. Guava can successfully grown upto a sea level of 1500
m in plains as well as sub mountainous tracts. It grows best with annual
rainfall below 100 cm restricted between June to September. Optimum
temperature ranges between 23oC to 28oC. The areas having distinct winter
season is considered best for increasing yield and improving quality.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Guava wilt can be controlled by drenching the soil with brassicol and
spraying the plant with Bavistin (0.1 %) at an interval of 15 days at the
early stage of infection. Grow resistant varieties like “Allahabad Safeda”,
“Banarsi”, “Supreme” etc. Remove such trees as the symptoms are
discovered. However, guava fruit canker is controlled by spraying
Bordeaux mixture (1.0 %) or Mancozeb (0.2 %). Take Mrig bahar crop
only and wash the fruits after harvesting with Aureofungin (1200 ppm).
Plant only resistant variety like “Allahabad Safeda” and “Apple colour”.
2. Mrig bahar (monsoon season flowering) is preferred over Ambe bahar
and Hasth bahar and it is taken or regulated by restricting irrigation from
February to mid May that results in shedding of leaves and plant goes to
rest. During rest period, tree can conserve food material in its branches.
In the month of June tree is well cultivated and manured followed by
irrigation. After about 20 to 25 days the tree flowers heavily. It can also
be done by exposing the roots by removing the upper soil around the
trunk, which results in reduction in supply of soil moisture from the soil
to the top, therefore leaves shed and trees goes to rest. After 3 to 4 weeks
the exposed roots are covered with soil, manured and watered the trees.
Spraying of NAA @ 600 ppm at the time of flowering is also beneficial
in deblossoming.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1. Pomegranate is utilized in making juice, syrups and jellies. Fruit juice
can also be used for the production of wine because of easy fermentation.
The juice of wild pomegranate is used in the manufacture of citric acid
and sodium nitrate for medicinal purpose. Seeds of pomegranate contain
oil which has a potential for industrial use. Sour aril of the wild types can
be utilized for the preparation of anardana.
2. Pomegranate is commercially propagated by cuttings which are taken
173
Sub Tropical Fruits from high yielding plants. Cuttings are prepared (20-25 cm long) from
the fully mature shoots of about one year old. The time of planting of
cuttings for rooting is spring in North India and during the monsoon in
South India. Cuttings are planted in polythene bags or pots or in nursery
beds. Rooting take place 15-20 days after planting. Application of IBA at
2000 ppm by quick dip method has been suggested for better rooting in
hardwood cuttings under mist. The plants are usually ready for
transplanting within 8 to 9 months. Pomegranate can also be propagated
by air layering.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1. Sudden change in the soil moisture content at the time of fruit ripening
like soils becomes too dry and then irrigated heavily results to pomegranate
fruit cracking. Other reasons are increase in air atmosphere, deficiencies
of calcium and boron. This disorder is also a varietal character, it was
least in Karkai, Bedana, Khog, Jalore Seedless, Guleshah and more in
Jodhpuri.
2. Pomegranate may be trained as multi stemmed tree or single stemmed
tree. In first case 3 to 4 stems are left at the top and remaining shoots are
removed, this will give a bushy form look to the resultant tree whereas,
in second case the single stem is left by removing all the side shoots at
the time of planting. The main stem is headed back at a height of about
one metre results in the formation of branches. Four to five well distributed
branches on all side above 60 to 70 cm from the ground level are allowed
to grow. This method has tendency to produce less number of shoots.
3. Fruit spot is a fungal disease. Affected fruits develop small irregular spots
surrounded by greenish yellow border making the appearance of fruit
less attractive. In severe infestation the discoloration of the surface slowly
extends to inner tissues and even up to seeds, causing aril the brownish
in colour whereas, leaf spot is caused by both bacterial and fungal disease.
Bacterial infection causes irregular water soaked spots on leaves which
are light brown to dark brown in appearance; however, fungal infected
leaves are minute violet black or black in colour. The spots coalesce and
form bigger spots and then affected part falls off.

174
 Sapota and
UNIT 7 SAPOTA (ACHRAS ZAPOTA L.) and Jackfruit
JACKFRUIT (ARTOCARPUS
HETEROPHYLLUS)
Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Sapota (Achras zapota L.) and Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus)
7.2.1 Sapota (Achras zapota L.)
7.2.1.1 Area and Production
7.2.1.2 Soil
7.2.1.3 Climate
7.2.1.4 Commercial Varieties
7.2.1.5 Planting
7.2.1.6 Propagation
7.2.1.7 Nutritional Requirements
7.2.1.8 Cultural Practices
7.2.1.9 Insect-pests and Diseases
7.2.1.10 Harvesting
7.2.1.11 Storage
7.2.1.12 Packaging and Transportation
7.2.1.13 Processing
7.2.2 Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus)
7.2.2.1 Area and Production
7.2.2.2 Soil
7.2.2.3 Climate
7.2.2.4 Commercial Varieties
7.2.2.5 Land Preparation and Planting
7.2.2.6 Propagation
7.2.2.7 Nutritional Requirement
7.2.2.8 Cultural Practices
7.2.2.9 Insect-pests and Diseases
7.2.2.10 Harvesting
7.2.2.11 Storage
7.2.2.12 Packaging and Transportation
7.2.2.13 Processing
7.3 Let Us Sum Up
7.4 Key Words
7.5 Further References
7.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
175
Sub Tropical Fruits
7.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be in a position to:
• explain the botany and uses of sapota and jackfruit,
• discuss status of area and production in the country,
• describe the soil, climatic and nutritional requirement,
• identify the different varieties by their names and characteristics,
• describe the planting and propagation methods and other cultural practices,
• describe the symptoms and control measures of pests and diseases, and
• explain the harvesting, storing, packaging, transporting and processing
methods.

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Sapota (Achras zapota L.) also known
as “chickoo” is grown throughout the
tropics for its delicious fruits. It is
introduced from tropical America to
other countries such as Southern
Florida in the United States, India, Sri
Lanka, Indonesia, Burma, Guatemala,
Philippines and Caribbean Islands. In
India, it is not exactly known when
sapota was introduced, but its
cultivation was taken up for the first
time in Maharashtra in 1898 in a
village named Gholwad. Cultivation
of sapota is highly suited to humid
tropical climate. Therefore, it is Round Fruited Sapota
mainly cultivated in coastal regions of
India. It is a handsome, slow growing
tree with dense foliage.
Sapota belongs to family Sapotaceae
and is native to tropical America. The
family Sapotaceae has a number of
species in different genera with edible
fruits. Many sapota varieties are
grown in different parts of India.
These are divided into two main
groups, one having round fruits and
the other oval fruits. Unfortunately,
this character is not stable. The same
variety can produce round and the
oval fruits at the same time. Oval Fruited Sapota
176
Sapota when fully ripe is delicious and is eaten as dessert fruit. The pulp is Sapota and
sweet and melting. The usual practice is to eat only the pulp. The fruit skin Jackfruit
can also be eaten since it is richer than the pulp in nutritive value. The sapota
fruits are a good source of sugar which ranges between 12 to 14 per cent. The
pulp is used for making sharbats and halwas. The fruits are also used for
making mixed jams and manufacture of industrial glucose, pectin and fruit
jellies. Its wood is used for making agricultural implements, building
constructions, furniture etc. The bark of sapota is used as a tonic and antipyretic
in Guinea.
Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus)
is very common tree of low land
tropics and grows well without much
care. The tree has considerable
potential but it is yet to receive due
attention. It is rarely cultivated in well
maintained orchards as a commercial
fruit. Jackfruit belongs to the family
Moraceae and is indigenous to India.
In India, it grows in a wild and semi
wild state in Assam, West Bengal,
Tripura, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and
western ghats range. The fruit is now Fruit bearing Jackfruit
widely cultivated throughout the
tropical low land in both the hemisphere. It is commonly grown in Burma
and Malaysia and to a considerable extent in Brazil. The genus ‘Artocarpus’
contains 50 species of monoecious trees. Though several species bear edible
fruits, only two (Jackfruit and Breadfruit) are economically important.
Ripe Jackfruit
Both mature and immature fruits as
well as seeds are used as vegetables.
It produces the largest known edible
fruits. The average weight of mature
and ripe fruit ranges from 3.24 to 7.39
kg. Ripe fruits are used as fresh. The
bark is used for tanning purpose. Heart
wood yields a yellow die. Timber is Ripe Jackfruit
used for making high class furniture,
musical instruments, toys and carving crates. Several processed products,
such as squash, nectar, fruit bar, toffees, jams, canned and dehydrated pulps,
beverages etc. can be prepared from the pulp. The roots and leaves of this
species are used medicinally in South-East Asia.

7.2 SAPOTA (ACHRAS ZAPOTA L.) AND

JACKFRUIT (ARTOCARPUS
HETEROPHYLLUS)
The area of production and cultural practice or both the crops are given
separately one by one. 177
Sub Tropical Fruits 7.2.1 Sapota (Achras zapota L.)
7.2.1.1 Area and Production
India is considered to be the largest producer of sapota in the world, though
sapota is considered to be a minor crop in the country. The area under sapota
is increasing so rapidly owing to a wide range of adaptability, low production
costs and high economic returns. In many regions cultivation of sapota is
now preferred over mango. At present, total area and production under sapota
in the country is 97.29 thousand ha and 1175.89 thousand mt. The production
is maximum in Gujarat (326.36 thousand mt.) followed by Karnataka (315.38
thousand mt.). In India, sapota is widely cultivated in Karnataka, Gujarat,
Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. It is also grown
on limited scale in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Brahamputra
valley of Assam.
Table 1: Statewise area, production and productivity in
total of sapota during 2017-18.

Sl. State Area Production Productivity

No. (000 ha.) (000 mt.) ha/mt
1 Gujarat 29.55 326.36 11.04
2 Karnataka 25.31 315.38 12.46
3 Tamil Nadu 5.76 169.96 29.50
4 Maharashtra 15.03 134.78 8.97
5 Andhra Pradesh 10.09 131.46 13.03
6 West Bengal 4.38 48.20 11.00
7 Haryana 1.69 14.65 8.67
8 Telangana 0.83 9.45 11.44
9 Madhya Pradesh 0.23 4.03 17.21
10 Chattisgarh 0.38 1.79 4.76
11 Others 4.05 1.46 0.36
Total 97.29 1175.89 128.44

7.2.1.2 Soil
Sapota is hardy plant and can be grown on a wide range of soils. Drainage is
most important. There should not be a hard pan in the sub soil. In sandy soils,
the plants are subjected to uprooting by strong winds. Deep and porous soils
are preferred. Sapota can tolerate the presence of salts in the soil or in irrigation
water to some extent. The most ideal soils are deep alluvium, sandy loams,
red laterites and medium black soils. In South India, particularly in the Western
Ghats, sapota is grown successfully on gravelly laterite soils.
7.2.1.3 Climate
Sapota is a tropical fruit crop and can be grown from sea level up to 1200 m
height. It prefers a warm and moist weather and grows in both dry and humid
areas. Coastal climate is best suited. At higher altitudes the fruit quality and
178
tree health suffers. Areas with an annual rainfall of 125 to 250 cm are highly Sapota and
suitable. The optimum temperature ranges between 11°C and 34°C. Jackfruit

In northern parts of India, young plants undergo injury during winter months
by frost. Fully grown trees can withstand mild frost for a short period. Sapota
does well on the plains of North India but irrigation and protection in summer
months are necessary. A high temperature above 41oC during summer causes
drying up of stigmatic fluid, flower drop and fruit scorching. In severe cases,
leaves and fruits undergo scorching. Dry and strong winds also cause damage
to flowers, leaves and fruits.
7.2.1.4 Commercial Varieties
Sapota industry in India is based on narrow genetic base and most of the
varieties are the result of local selections for shape, size and quality of fruits.
Some of the cultivars which grown in India are:
i) Cricket Ball : It is grown in Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra,
West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh.
The leaves are light green. This
bears largest sized fruits which are
round in shape. Pulp is gritty and
granular and not very sweet. It is
a shy bearer and does well in arid
climate. This variety produces
good quality fruits below an
elevation of 300 metres. Cricket Ball

ii) Kalipatti : It is a leading cultivar

of Maharashtra, Gujarat and North
Karnataka. It has dark green,
broad and thick leaves and
spreading branches. Fruits are oval
shaped, less seeded with a sweet,
mellow flesh of excellent quality.
Fragrance is mild. Each fruit has
1-4 seeds. Fruit appear singly. The
Kalipatti variety
main season of harvest is winter.
iii) Chhatri : As the name goes, it bears umbrella like whorls of branches.
Its leaves are light green in colour and the fruit is similar to that of Kalipatti
in appearance but is slightly less sweet. Though a fairly good cropper, it
does not bear as heavily as Kalipatti.
iv) Calcutta Round : It is commercially grown in West Bengal, Karnataka
and other states. The foliage is light green in colour. Fruits are large but
the flesh are gritty and of moderate quality. It is susceptible to leaf spot
disease.
v) Pala : It is popular variety of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The fruits
are small to medium sized and oval or eggshaped, with apex broadly
179
Sub Tropical Fruits pointed and are very sweet. The bearing is heavy and the fruits are borne
in clusters. The fruit has thin skin and good flavour.
Other popular varieties are Dhola Diwani, Long, Jingar, Bhuripatti, Pot
Sapota, Baramasi, Bangalore, Vavi Valasa, Oval, Dwarapudi etc.
vi) Few selections/hybrids have also been developed in the country :
Selection/ Parentage Characters
Hybrid name
Co-1 Cricket Ball x Fruits are long, oval, medium in size,
Oval flesh is granular in texture and
reddish brown in colour. Taste is very
sweet.
Co-2 Clonal selection Tree vigorous, conical. Fruits are
from Baramasi ovate to round, flesh soft, juicy and
slightly gritty.
PKM-1 Clonal selection Tree dwarf, fruits round or oval, skin
from Baramasi is thin, pulp like butter, very sweet in
taste.
DHS-1 Kallipatti x Fruit round to slightly oblong, very
Cricket Ball sweet, soft, granular and mellowing
pulp of light orange colour.
DHS-2 Kallipatti x Fruits are round, sweet, pulp is soft,
Cricket Ball granular and mellowing with orange-
brown colour.
7.2.1.5 Planting
A location free from water stagnation should be selected and all the vegetation
should be removed. It is then ploughed two to three times and leveled. A
strong windbreak should be established by planting tall and thick growing
trees on the windward side or on all sides of the orchard. The plants of
windbreak may be planted at 1.5 to 1.8 m apart in a row.
Pits of the size of 60 x 60 x 60 cm or 1 x 1 x 1 m are prepared at a distance of
8 to 10 m both ways depending upon the planting material and the soil. In
low rainfall areas and soil with low fertility, closer spacing is followed, while
in heavy rainfall tracts and fertile soils, a wider spacing is recommended.
High density planting at a spacing of 5 x 5 m may be practiced to obtain
higher economic yield per unit area. However, identification of dwarfing
rootstocks and standardization of agro techniques may help in high density
planting of sapota. The pits are exposed for a month. The best time for making
pits is during April - May. After one or two showers, the pits are filled with
top soil and farmyard manure or compost in equal quantities.
The best time for planting is during early monsoon. Grafted or budded plants
are planted one in each pit in the centre and care should be taken to see that
the graft or bud joint remain at least 15 cm above the ground level. The soil
around the roots is gently and firmly pressed and stakes are provided to avoid
180 wind damage. The plants are watered and taken care of thereafter.
7.2.1.6 Propagation Sapota and
Jackfruit
Sapota is propagated by both sexual and asexual/Vegetative method of
propagation.
a) Sexual method of Propagation
It is taken place by seed. Propagation by seeds is not advisable because seeding
trees are slow growing, take longer time to come into bearing and have lot of
variations.
Generally this method is used to developed new hybrids or varieties in sapota.
b) Asexual/Vegetative method of propagation
This method is carried out by different ways which have been described below
one by one. Propagation by vegetative method is essential in sapota for
commercially propagation by inarching-grafting and air-layering. However,
inarching is preferred as compared to air layering. Propagation by cutting,
budding and stone grafting is also successful.
i) Inarching : Inarching is a commercial method of propagation. The scion
remains attached to the parent tree till the union is complete. The
rootstocks are raised in pots. One year old seedlings of rayan (rootstock)
are suitable for grafting. Inarching is done during spring season. Maximum
success was recorded in February (90 %), followed by January and March.
The graft could be detached from the mother plant at 5½ month after
inarching.
ii) Air layering : This method is common in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. It is possible to get a sizeable
plant in a short time but mortality is high and the root system is shallow.
The air layered plants are likely to be uprooted when heavy winds
experienced in sandy soils. The best time for air layering is the beginning
of rainy season. High humidity prevailing during the monsoon facilitates
rooting. The rooting percentage in air layers of sapota increases with a
mixture of IBA and NAA at 10,000 ppm. In rooting of air layers, the
invigorated shoots produced as a result of beheading a grafted tree, possess
a better rooting ability than mature shoots.
iii) Soft-wood grafting : It could be done in one year stock plants during
July-August with more than 80 per cent success and September - October
with over 50 per cent success.
iv) Rootstock and raising of rootstock : Several rootstocks have been tried
in sapota. These include (i) Sapota seedlings (Achras zapota), Rayan or
Khirnee (Manilkara hexandra or Mimusops hexandra), Adam’s apple
(Manilkara kauki), Star apple (Chrysophyllum cainito), Mahua (Madhuca
latifolia) and Mee tree (Bassia longifolia). Of all the rootstocks tried,
rayan a popular tropical tree is extensively used as rootstock for grafting
sapota as it has a very profuse fruit yield as compared to air layered trees
and those grafted on self rootstock respectively.
Rayan, was found to be most vigorous and productive rootstock. Its fruit
181
Sub Tropical Fruits are small, oval and sweet. They are washed to get rid of pulp in water and
dried under shade and sown. The seeds are soaked in water for a night for
easy and quick germination. Seeds are sown in raised seeds beds or pots.
The seeds germinate in about 4 weeks and when they are about 15 cm
high they are transferred to small pots. All the side growths are removed
up to a height of 30 cm from ground level to get a clean and straight stem.
When they attain a thickness of 1 cm they are used for grafting or budding.
7.2.1.7 Nutritional Requirements
For healthy growth and good quality fruits, manures and fertilizers should be
applied in the required dosages. When intercrops such as banana are grown
in sapota orchards they get heavy fertilization indirectly since banana are
given manures and fertilizers. Besides this, the pseudostems are cut and
incorporated into the soil. One year old tree should be given 25 kg farmyard
manure, 80 g CAN, 60 g superphosphate, and 15 g muriate of potash.
Thereafter, the above dose should be increased by 5 kg farmyard manure, 80
g CAN, 60 g superphosphate and 15 g of muriate of potash, respectively
annually up to ninth year. From the tenth year onwards 45 kg FYM, 1.5 kg
CAN, 560 g superphosphate and 200 g muriate of potash per tree should be
applied. The beginning of monsoon is the right time of manuring. From the
seventh year onward, the tree bears heavily and therefore, they should be
manured twice a year. The second dose of manure can be given in the month
of February. The following doses of manures and fertilizers have been found
beneficial for obtaining higher yield of sapota under Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka conditions.
Table 2 : Manure and fertilizer schedule for sapota plants in the country.

Age of FYM Nitrogen Phosphorous Potassium

the Plant (kg/tree) (g) (g) (g)
1–3 50 50 20 75
4–7 50 100 40 150
7 – 10 50 200 80 300
11 & above 50 400 160 450
Micronutrients application also affects productivity and quality of sapota.
Deficiency of zinc can be overcome by the foliar application of ZnSO4.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: a) Space is given below for the answer.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
1. Which rootstocks are used for propagating a sapota plant ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

182 ............................................................................................................
 2. Name the developed hybrids of sapota along with their characteristics. Sapota and
Jackfruit
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
3. What is the nutritive value of sapota fruit ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
7.2.1.8 Cultural Practices
i) Irrigation : Though sapota can tolerate drought conditions to some extent,
yet it responds well to irrigation. Young plants are watered regularly during
dry season and long breaks in the monsoon, in winter and summer at an
interval of 6 to 12 days. In Maharashtra, young plants are given irrigation
once in eight days, from October onwards till monsoon starts. Protective
irrigation is given during first two seasons in Karnataka for better
establishment of plants. Insufficient irrigation results in dropping of a
large number of flowers leading to a loss up to 40 per cent in yield. In the
beginning small basins are made and hand watered but as the plant grows
in size, the size of the basin is also widened.
ii) Intercropping : Sapota has long pre-bearing age and till the trees cover
the entire area with canopy, intercrops can be grown. During the first ten
years when the trees are young much of the orchard land between rows of
trees remain unoccupied. Some vegetables can profitably be taken if
adequate irrigation facilities are available. Short duration fruits like
banana, papaya, phalsa etc. may be planted as fillers in those orchards
which come into bearing rather late. Leguminous crops like cowpea,
moong and cluster bean can also be grown as intercrop.
iii) Weeding : Weeds compete for nutrients and moisture and have should
be removed frequently. When intercrops are grown, they may not be a
problem during that period and in such case the basins only are kept free
from weeds. Chemicals viz. Bromacil @3 kg/ha. or Diuron @ 4 kg/ha.
can also be used in controlling the weeds from the orchard.
iv) Training and pruning : In sapota, a strong central stem is necessary and
in air layers most of the branches are put forth very near the ground level.
In the beginning, the basal branches help in developing a thick central
stem and hence care must be taken to maintain proper distribution of
branches on all sides. But later with an advance in age the lower most
branches weigh down to ground level and become unfruitful. Sapota in
general has a well balanced distribution of branches and the crown assumes
a uniform shape. There is no necessity of pruning every year.
All the growths those appear on the rootstock below the graft of bud joint
must be removed. After 3 to 4 years of planting, the lower most branches 183
Sub Tropical Fruits up to a height of 60 to 90 cm may be removed. Similarly over shaded and
crowded branches are also removed.
In sapota, new growth and flowering occur simultaneously and it is a
mixed type of bearing habit. Flowers and fruits appear in the leaf axils in
the new growth and hence pruning of branches should be done.
7.2.1.9 Pests and Diseases
Sapota crop is affected by insect-pests and diseases and necessary plant
protection measures should be taken up in time.
a) Insect-pests
i) Stem borer (Indarbela tetraonis) : This is a small beetle. The grub is
stout and bores into the bark of the trunk making circular galleries and
feeds on the living tissues of the inner bark. The presence of the insect
can be detected from the chewed bark thrown out of a hole in the trunk.
The borer can be traced by cutting dead bark along the hollow tunnels
with a knife. This insect has been reported from Tamil Nadu, Karnataka
and other places.
The insect is killed by thrusting a stiff wire into the tunnel. If it is deep
inside the wood, the hole is plugged with a pad of cotton wool dipped in
kerosene or petrol and plastered with wet mud. By this, the borer gets
suffocated and dies within the tree.
ii) Scale insects (Pulvinaria psidii) : These are green and brown scale, oval
shaped insects with a slight twist at the front end. The characteristic feature
is the presence of an inverted loop on the body. These infest along the
sides of midrib and surface of leaves and on the tender twigs. They suck
the sap.
Spraying a suitable insecticide such as Dimithoate or Malathion at 30 ml
in 18 liters of water effectively controls the pest. They suck the sap.
iii) Mealy bug (Phenacoccus icerjoides) : It is a sucking insect. It is a small,
oval in shape with a cottony white, waxy covering on its body. Mealy
bugs stick on the under surface of leaves and base of the fruit near the
fruit stalks. They suck the sap and secrete large quantities of sugary
substance. Leaves have a black coating which gives them a sickly
appearance.
Spray Dimethoate @ 30 ml in 18 litre of water for its control. Try to keep
free sapota plantation from red ants because these help in distributing
mealy bugs from one tree to another. Red ants are effectively controlled
with a dusting of a mixture of carbaryl dust with sulphur in the proportion
of 2:1.
iv) Fruit borer (Virachola isocrates) : It attack on fruit and sometimes buds
which can easily be detected by seeing the latex which comes out on the
surface of the infested fruits. The latex crystallizes later on. Sapota bud
borer (Anarsia archrasella) and sapota moth (Nephopterix eugraphella)
also infest sapota and do considerable loss. These insects attack on buds,
184
 flowers and young leaves. The affected buds do not developed into flowers Sapota and
and fruits. Jackfruit

For its control spray 0.05 per cent Malathion. Spray 0.01 per cent
Fenvalerate, 0.01 per cent Fenthion or 0.075 per cent Phosaline.
v) Leaf miner (Anarsia gemoniella) : The tiny caterpillar of a greyish moth
mines into the surface of young leaves. Affected leaves curl up, irregular
galleries or mines are seen on the surface of leaves and sometimes
caterpillars are found inside the mines. Later on, affected leaves get
destroyed, dry up and fall.
Spray once or twice Dimethoate or Malathion (30 ml in 18 litre of water.)
b) Diseases
i) Leaf spot (Phaeophleospora indica) : This is a fungal disease and was
first reported from Dharwar. It is characterized by numerous, small pinkish
to reddish brown spots with whitish centres. In severe cases, the defoliation
of leaves may be noticed and tree becomes partially or fully barren. Leaf
spot become severe during rainy season.
Spray Dithane Z-78 at 0.2 per cent at an interval of 30 days. Grow resistant
varieties like “Co-1” and “Cricket Ball”. The varieties “Co-2” and
“Kalipatti” are tolerant, but “Calcutta Round” is susceptible.
ii) Sooty mould (Capnodium sp.) : The causal fungal disease develops on
the honey dew like excretion by scale insects and mealy bug. The disease
adversely affects the photosynthetic function of leaves and disfigures the
fruit.
Spray Zineb at 40 g in 18 litres of water to check the disease. Spray
Starch solution @ 100 g in 18 litres of water. Starch forms thin flakes and
drop off.
iii) Flattening of branches or flat limb (Botryodiplodia theobromae) : This
is attributed to pathogen. This has been recorded in South India, coastal
area of Maharashtra and Gujarat, and in such trees the fruit set and yields
are adversely affected. The affected branches produce small, dry, hard
and shriveled fruits. Affected branches produce leaves of smaller size,
the branches have been found to recover to a normal growth during
summer months. To control this phyto-sanitary measures are beneficial.
7.2.1.10 Harvesting
Sapota is a climacteric fruits and it
improves in quality after harvesting,
but immature fruits should not be
harvested. The fruits to be harvested
must be fully matured and the maturity
can be judged, when fully mature
fruits develop a dull orange or potato
colour. On scratching mature fruit
shows yellow streak while it is green
185
Sub Tropical Fruits in immature fruits. The skin becomes smooth free from brown scaly matter.
In mature fruits, the content of milky latex is reduced and it becomes watery.
Spine like stigma at the tip of the mature fruit fall or drop off easily, when
touched.
Although continuous flowering and fruiting are observed in sapota but peak
harvest is done either during September-November or January-March. In June-
July, a small quantity of crop is also obtained. Fruits are individually picked
by hand by twisting it along with the stalks. Fruit picker is used to pluck
fruits at height. The fruit yield depends upon the age, cultivar, agro climatic
condition, nutrition, irrigation, cultural operation and other orchard
management practices. Yield increases up to 30 years age of sapota tree. At
this stage about 2000 to 3000 fruits can be obtained. However, at the age of
seven year about 100 fruits are obtained which is supposed to be an economic
yield.
7.2.1.11 Storage
Sapota is a highly perishable fruit and cannot be kept for long. Fruits keep
well for 5 to 7 days under ordinary condition. Shelf life can be extended by
checking the rate of transpiration, respiration and microbial infection. Ethylene
production is noticed on the 2nd day which reaches peak on the 4th day. The
respiratory climax is attained on the 5th day. Storage life can be extended, if
fruits are kept at 15 to 20°C, with 85 to 90 per cent relative humidity, and
CO2 concentration between 5 and 10 per cent (v/v). Shelf life of sapota can
be extended by 10-12 days, when fruits are stored in polythene bags with
permanganate silica gel. Post harvest dip in GA3 (300 ppm) or kinetin (100
ppm) for extending the storage life of sapota is recommended. The fruit ripens
in about 5 days after harvest at normal condition. However, for quick ripening
ethrel (500 ppm) may be used.
7.2.1.12 Packaging and Transportation
Grading in sapota is largely done by size and shape in our country, particularly
in the west coast and it is arbitrary. The fruits are graded into three categories
depending upon the size. They are large, medium and small.
For distant markets, the fruits are packed immediately after harvest in bamboo
baskets, which are padded with straw, soft grass or dried banana leaves. These
baskets have wide or conical mouths. It is advantageous to use standard
wooden boxes for packing and transportation over long distance by rail or
road.
7.2.1.13 Processing
Jam, mixed fruit jam, chikkoo milk shakes, are becoming popular. Chikoo
slices, can be prepared by dehydration. Chikkoo powder, can also be prepared
by maintaining moisture level at 10 per cent which is further used to prepare
ice-cream and alike food products.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note : a) Space is given below for the answer.
186
 b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit. Sapota and
Jackfruit
1. What are the maturity indices of sapota fruit ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
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2. Differentiate between stem borer and fruit borer.
............................................................................................................
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3. What main products can be prepared from the sapota ?
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7.2.2 Jackfruit (Artocarpus Heterophyllus)

The area of production and tips of cultivation of jackfruit are as below :
7.2.2.1 Area and Production
The estimate of actual area under this crop is not available. It is rarely grown
in plantations but preferred very much in homesteads and as a shade tree or
as a mixed crop. The largest area under jackfruit in India is in Assam where
the area is about 8000 hectare. In Bihar, the area is approximately 4000 hectare
and in South India the tree occupies an area of about 2000 hectare. In Northern
India, jackfruit is grown in foothills of Himalayas. It grows throughout South
India up to an altitude of 2400 m. Jackfruit also flourishes in the western
ghats.
7.2.2.2 Soil
It can be grown on a wide range of soils. The ideal soils are deep, rich, well
drained alluvial types. Drainage is the most important criterion for selecting
the soil as the tree is highly sensitive to water stagnation. Rise in ground
water causes considerable damage to the crop and in severe cases may be
fatal to the tree. It can be cultivated in open textured sandy loam or lateritic
type of soils provided adequate nutrient and moisture supplies are ensured.
7.2.2.3 Climate
Jackfruit is a tropical crop and thrives well in hot humid climate. It can be
grown upto an altitude of 1500 m from mean sea level. It can tolerate low
temperature to some extent but sensitive to chilling cold and frost. In higher
altitude the fruit growth may continue up to September but quality of fruit
deteriorates. It does well in warm belt of southern part of India. The jackfruit
loves a good shade, but thrives in open. 187
Sub Tropical Fruits 7.2.2.4 Commercial Varieties
There is no named variety of jackfruit. Owing to heterozygous in nature, the
natural crossing has given rise to the development of numerous types and
forms, varying in their fruit characteristics. Broadly the cultivated types can
be grouped into two (i) Soft flesh – the pulp of ripe fruit is very juicy and
soft, (ii) Firm flesh – the fleshy pulp is firm and crispy at ripe and can be
preserved for several months. Some types are available with their common
names viz. Gulabi (rose scented), Hazari (bearing large number of fruits),
Champaka (aroma resembles to the fragrance of champa flowers). Rudrakshi
is a type of jackfruit which bears small roundish fruit. Singapore or Ceylon
jack is an introduced type which is valued for its earliness and precocious
bearing habit.
7.2.2.5 Land Preparation and Planting
Seedlings are planted in square system with a spacing of 10 x 10 m. In fertile
soil, a wider spacing may be given. Pits having a dimension of 1 x 1 x 1 m
are dug 2 weeks before planting and exposed to the sun to destroy the soil
borne pathogens. Pits should be filled with top soils mixed with 25 to 30 kg
well rotten FYM and 50 g of methyl parathion dust to prevent the termite
attack. The vegetatively raised seedlings are planted at the centre of each pit.
After planting the soils around the seedlings should be pressed firmly to
avoid water logging. In situ planting of 3 to 4 seeds per pit leads to stronger
plant. The ideal time for planting is middle of June to end of August but with
irrigation facilities it may be extended up to November. Seedlings should
preferably be planted in the evening and a light irrigation should be given
immediately after planting for better seedling establishment.
7.2.2.6 Propagation
It is propagated by sexual and asexual / vegetative method of propagation.
a) Sexual propagation
Jackfruit is mainly propagated by sexual means. Owing to heterozygous and
cross pollinated nature the seed plants are seldom true to type. Seed should
be sown immediately, after extraction from the fruits, because it loses its
viability, with the duration of storage. Seeds sown immediately, after extraction
exhibited 100 per cent germination. Presoaking of seeds in solution containing
NAA (25 ppm) for 24 hours improves the percentage of germination.
b) Asexual/Vegetative propagation
Till date several methods of asexual / vegetative propagation like cutting, air
layering, epicotyl grafting, budding (chip and patch) have been tried with
varying degree of success.
i) Cutting : Maximum rooting and survival of jackfruit cuttings are obtained
by using forced etiolated shoots treated with IBA at 5000 ppm. Rooting
success is greatest in cutting which are ringed and etiolated 20 days before
detachment and treated with IBA.

188
ii) Air Layering : Success in rooting of air layers in jackfruit has been Sapota and
reported since long back. The highest percentage (100 %) of rooting and Jackfruit
establishment in jackfruit air layering were obtained when the etiolated
shoots were treated with 10,000 ppm IBA during the month of September.
iii) Budding/grafting : In jackfruit, several methods of budding have been
tried with varying degrees of success. Buds from a healthy jackfruit tree,
when patch budded on seedling rootstock in June and July gives the highest
bud take. Epicotyl grafting, with 3 to 4 months old scions on 5 day old
rootstock results into the highest percentage of sprouting and survival.
Softwood grafting with 3 to 4 month old scions collected 10 days before
grafting on seedling rootstocks in June gives the highest percentage of
sprouting and survival.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

Note : a) Space is given below for the answer.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
1. What are the uses of Jackfruit ?
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2. In how many types the cultivated Jackfruit is classified ?
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7.2.2.7 Nutritional Requirements
Nutritional requirements of jackfruit are very less, as till date it is mostly
cultivated as without less care. If growth and production appear to be marginal,
manuring will be desirable. Farmyard manure or compost and fertilizers may
be applied according to the growth and age of the tree and condition of the
soil. The trees however, need nutrition for regular and good cropping.
Farmyard manure @ 18.5 kg, ammonium sulphate @ 450 g, single
superphosphate @ 250 g, muriate of potash @ 170 g, can be applied to per
plant at the time of planting which resulted into better plant growth and
development and produce more fruits than those receiving FYM only. The
following manures and fertilizers schedule is suggested for jackfruit in the
country.

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Sub Tropical Fruits Table 3 : Manures and fertilizers schedule for Jackfruiit in the country.

Age of Plant FYM g/tree

(years) (kg/tree) Nitrogen Phosphorous Potassium
1–3 20 100 40 60
4–7 40 300 120 180
Over 7 years 60 600 180 240
Full dose of FYM + P2O5 + K2O and ½ N may be applied in the end of June
and rest of half of nitrogen in February-March. Manures and fertilizers should
be spread in the drip zone i.e. in one metre wide circular basin, leaving 50 cm
around the trunk and incorporated into the soil by light spading. Trees should
be irrigated soon after manure and fertilizers application. Copper deficiency
symptoms were also noticed in jackfruit, which can be overcome by the foliar
application of CuSO4 @ 0.1 g/litre of water.
7.2.2.8 Cultural Practices
The following cultural practices are essential for Jackfruit cultivation.
i) Irrigation : Jackfruit is cultivated in India as a rainfed crop. It is not
irrigated normally, as it is tolerant to drought. In arid and semi-arid area
where annual rainfall is less, irrigation is necessity. If rainfall is poorly
distributed throughout the growing season, supplementary irrigation during
the lean period may be profitable. The young plants are sensitive to drought.
For better growth of seedlings, hand water should be done during summer
and winter months.
ii) Care of young plants : Jackfruit leaves being a favourite feed of goats,
the young plants are frequency damaged by stray goats and cattle unless
adequately guarded by providing gabions for about two years. Gabions may
have to be replaced after a year. Irrigation of young plants during one or two
summers is necessary for assured survival and good growth of plants. In
colder regions protection against frost at least during first few years is safe.
Cleaning of basins by spading and ploughing of orchards should be followed
as a routine measure. Frequent weeding and mulching are necessary to achieve
normal plant growth.
iii) Intercropping : It is advisable to utilize the inter space, by growing some
intercrops during the gestation period of jackfruit, which gives some extra
income to the growers. Vegetables like brinjal, tomato, chilli, cabbage etc.
can be grown with assured irrigation facilities. Leguminous crops like pea,
gram can also be grown which will add nitrogen to the soil.
7.2.2.9 Insect-Pests and Diseases
a) Insect-Pests
Although a number of pests are known to attack jackfruit, the most important
are described below :
i) Shoot and trunk borer (Diaphania cacsalis) : It is often serious in
190 Assam, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The larvae of this moth bore into the
 tender shoots and buds. The affected parts should be nipped off and Sapota and
destroyed. Application of carbaryl eg. Sevin 50 per cent @ 4 g per litre of Jackfruit
water by spray in flowering season is advisable.
ii) Brown weevil (Ochyromera artocarpi) : It has also been reported to be
very damaging to jackfruit. The grubs bore into the tender buds and fruits.
The fallen buds and fruits should be collected and destroyed. Application
of Carbaryl @ 4 g/litre is advisable.
iii) Fruit borer (Glyphodes caesalis) : The reddish brown larvae bore into
the fruit and destroy them. It can be controlled following the same methods
for shoot and trunk borer but spraying should be done after fruit set.
Besides these Mealy bug (Drosicha mangiferae) and Spittle bug
(Cosmoscarta relata) have been reported to cause damage to jackfruit
which can be controlled by Carbaryl (0.4 %), Pyrethrum (0.1 %) and
Malathion (0.1 %).
b) Diseases
i) Pink disease (Botryobasidium salmonicolor) : Young woody branches
show die back symptom and pink encrustation is seen on lower side of
the leaves. The affected parts should be pruned along with some healthy
tissues and the cut ends should be covered with Bordeaux paste.
ii) Rhizopus rot (Rhizopus artocarpi) : The pathogen usually infects the
male inflorescence and small fruits. The rot starts near the stalk end which
gets covered with the mycelium. Spray applications of Mancozeb 75 %
WP at 0.2 per cent and Bavistin (carbendazim) at 0.05 per cent, three
times at 14 days intervals starting in early March give the best control.
iii) Blossom and fruit blight (Botrytis cinerea and Rhizopus stolonifer) :
Attack of the disease causes premature drop of young jackfruit.
Application of benomyl (0.04 %) sprays when the diseases appear and
15 days later successfully control the incidences.
iv) Leaf spot (Phyllosticta atrocarpina) : Small, round, yellow spots appear
on the leaf surface and the leaves drop off prematurely. This is a minor
disease, however, sometime there is severe attack. Spraying with Perenox
(0.3 %) or Blitox-50 (0.3 %) is recommended.
7.2.2.10 Harvesting
Several indices are commonly used to determine the optimum time to pick
jackfruit.
a) A dull, hollow sound is produced when the fruit is tapped by the finger,
b) The last leaf of the peduncle turns yellow,
c) Fruit spines become well developed and wide spread,
d) The spines yield to moderate pressure, and
e) An aromatic odour develops.
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Sub Tropical Fruits For distant market fruit should be harvested when still firm and without any
aroma. The tender jackfruit, which is used for culinary purpose is harvested
before the hardening of the seeds. Fruits harvested at 15 to 16 weeks maturity
and ripened for 3 days give optimum quality in the canned product.
If the fruit is within reach, it can be cut with a sickle or twisted until it snaps
off. In tall trees, a sack is placed on the fruit with a rope tied on the peduncle.
After cutting the fruit is gradually lowered to the ground. The yield of jackfruit
varies widely with the types and climate conditions. The tree produces a few
fruits to as high as 250 to 300 fruits per year. The individual fruit weight
varies from less than one kg to 15-20 kg.
7.2.2.11 Storage
On the third day of storage a distinct improvement in aroma and skin colour
is observed in jackfruit. On the 4th day of storage aroma, taste and colour
continue to develop but fruits begin to soften. It is concluded that for fresh
consumption 4 days of storage is optimal but for canning, where flesh firmness
is crucial, storage for 3 days is optimal. Spray application of CaNO3 (2.0 %)
and CaCl2 (2.0 %) 15 days before harvest reduces the weight loss and maintains
shelf life for 19 days at ambient condition and results the best flavour and
firmness.
7.2.2.12 Packaging and Transportation
Due to large size the individual fruits are packed. Packaging depends upon
the use and the distance to be sent. Individual fruits are packed in the polythene
bags. Sometimes small sized fruits are packed in quantity of 2 to 3.
For long distant markets the mature fruits are harvested and transported either
by road or by rail. However, for local markets it is sent in local vehicles
which are easily available.
7.2.2.13 Processing
Unripe and ripe fruits can be processed. The seeds may be boiled or baked
like beans. Papadums is a processed products from Bangalore. Chips, dried
fruits, flakes, syrups, pastilles, halwa are the other processed products. Kathal
sabji, kathal achar, are prepared from unripe fruits.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

Note : a) Space is given below for the answer.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
1. What are the maturity indices of jackfruit ?
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2. What cultural practices are required in cultivating jackfruit ?
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 ............................................................................................................ Sapota and
Jackfruit
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7.3 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, you have studied about the botany, importance, area of production,
soil and climatic requirements, commercial varieties, planting and propagation
methods, nutritional requirements, cultural practices performed in the orchard,
pest and diseases management, harvesting time, storage, packaging and
processing of sapota and jackfruit. Both the fruit plants are of tropical nature
and can grow up to altitude of 1200 to 1500 m amsl. As you have studied the
deep alluvium or sandy loamy soil is best for the cultivation however, the
plants are hardy in nature and can be grown on a wide range of soils. It has
been studied that air layering and grafting are found the best asexual method
of propagation. You have also studied the symptoms and management of
different pests and diseases, harvesting practices, storage, packaging and
processing methods of sapota and jackfruit.

7.4 KEY WORDS

Epicotyl grafting : Method of grafting where 7-10 days old
seedling stocks are grafted with the current
years scion shoots, which have defoliated
earlier.
Rootstock : The plant material on which grafting is done
known as rootstock. It can be multiplied by
seeds or cuttings.
Intercropping : Growing of two or more crops in the same field
orchard at the same time.

7.5 FURTHER REFERENCES

1. Sulladanath, U.V. and Narayana Reddy, M.A. (1985). Sapota In: Fruits
of India. Tropical and Sub-tropical (ed. T.K. Bose) Naya Prokash,
Calcutta.
2. Cheema, G.S., Bhatt, S.S. and Naik, K.C. (1957). Commercial Fruit
Culture. McMillian and Co., London.
3. Singh, R. (1969). Fruits. National Book Trust of India, New Delhi.

7.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1. The rootstocks which are used for propagating sapota are sapota seedlings
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Sub Tropical Fruits (Achras zapota), Rayan or Khirnee (Manilkara hexandra or Mimusops
hexandra), Adam’s apple (Manilkara kauki), Star apple (Chrysophyllum
cainito), Mahua (Madhuca latifolia) and Mee tree (Bassia longifolia).
Of all the rootstocks, rayan is most popular.
2. The hybrids developed is as under :
Co-1: A cross of Cricket Ball x Oval. Fruits are long, oval, and medium
in size. Flesh is granular in texture and reddish brown in colour. Taste is
very sweet.
DHS-1: A cross of Kalipatti x Cricket Ball. Fruit round to slightly oblong,
very sweet, soft, granular and mellowing pulp of light orange colour.
DHS-2: A cross of Kalipatti x Cricket Ball. Fruits are round, sweet, pulp
is soft, granular and mellowing with orange-brown colour.
3. Sapota fruits are a good source of sugar which ranges between 12 to 14
per cent. It is an excellent preventive against biliousness and febrile
attacks. The bark of sapota is used as a tonic and antipyretic in Guinea.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Sapota fruit is harvested when it is fully matured and maturity can be
judged when fully mature fruits develop a dull orange or potato colour.
On scratching mature fruit shows yellow streak while it is green in
immature fruits. The skin becomes smooth free from brown scaly matter.
In mature fruits, the content of milky latex is reduced and it becomes
watery. Spine like stigma at the tip of the mature fruit fall or drop off
easily, when touched.
2. Stem borer is a small beetle, the grub is stout and bores into the bark of
the trunk making circular galleries and feeds on the living tissues of the
inner bark. The presence of the insect can be detected from the chewed
bark thrown out of a hole in the trunk. The borer can be traced by cutting
dead bark along the hollow tunnels with a knife. To control it, a pad of
cotton wool dipped in kerosene oil or petrol is plugged into the hole and
plastered with wet mud while fruit borer attack on fruit and sometimes
buds which can easily be detected by seeing the latex which comes out
on the surface of the infested fruits. The affected buds do not developed
into flowers and fruits. To control this spray Malathion (0.05 %).
3. Jam, mixed fruit jam, chikkoo milk shakes are the products prepared
from sapota fruit. Chikoo slices can be prepared by dehydration. Chikkoo
powder can also be prepared by maintaining moisture level at 10 per cent
which is further used to prepare ice-cream and alike food products.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1. Both mature and immature jackfruits as well as seeds are used as
vegetables however; ripe fruits are used as fresh. The bark is used for
tanning purpose. Timber is used for making high class furniture, musical
194 instruments, toys and carving crates. Leaves and skin of fruit are utilized
 as a green fodder. Several processed products, such as squash, nectar, Sapota and
fruit bar, toffees, jams, canned and dehydrated pulps, beverages etc. can Jackfruit
be prepared from the pulp. The roots and leaves of this species are used
medicinally.
2. The cultivated jackfruit can be grouped into two types (i) Soft flesh – the
pulp of ripe fruit is very juicy and soft, (ii) Firm flesh – the fleshy pulp is
firm and crispy at ripe and can be preserved for several months.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1. The maturity indices for harvesting of jackfruit are a) a dull, hollow sound
is produced when the fruit is tapped by the finger, b) the last leaf of the
peduncle turns yellow c) fruit spines become well developed and wide
spread d) the spines yield to moderate pressure and e) an aromatic odour
develops.
2. The main cultural practices which are done in jackfruit plantations is
timely irrigation specially the young plants, young plants are the favourite
feed of goats so they requires proper fencing for two years. Frequent
weeding and mulching are necessary to achieve normal plant growth.
Interspace can be utilized by growing some intercrops during the gestation
period. Vegetables like brinjal, tomato, chilli, cabbage etc. can be grown
with assured irrigation facilities. Leguminous crops like pea, gram can
also be grown which will add nitrogen to the soil.

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