Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or

numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires, and surveys, or by manipulating pre-
existing statistical data using computational techniques. Quantitative research focuses on gathering
numerical data and generalizing it across groups of people or to explain a particular phenomenon.

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

Your goal in conducting quantitative research study is to determine the relationship between one thing
[an independent variable] and another [a dependent or outcome variable] within a population.
Quantitative research designs are either descriptive[subjects usually measured once]
or experimental [subjects measured before and after a treatment]. A descriptive study establishes only
associations between variables; an experimental study establishes causality.
Quantitative research deals in numbers, logic, and an objective stance. Quantitative research focuses on
numeric and unchanging data and detailed, convergent reasoning rather than divergent reasoning [i.e.,
the generation of a variety of ideas about a research problem in a spontaneous, free-flowing manner].
Its main characteristics are:

 The data is usually gathered using structured research instruments.

 The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population.
 The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability.
 Researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are sought.
 All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected.
 Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables, charts, figures, or other
non-textual forms.
 Project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or investigate
causal relationships.
 Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or computer software, to collect numerical data.

The overarching aim of a quantitative research study is to classify features, count them, and construct
statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed.

Basic Research Design for Quantitative Studies

Before designing a quantitative research study, you must decide whether it will be descriptive or
experimental because this will dictate how you gather, analyze, and interpret the results. A descriptive
study is governed by the following rules: subjects are generally measured once; the intention is to only
establish associations between variables; and, the study may include a sample population of hundreds or
thousands of subjects to ensure that a valid estimate of a generalized relationship between variables has
been obtained. An experimental design includes subjects measured before and after a particular
treatment, the sample population may be very small and purposefully chosen, and it is intended to
establish causality between variables.

Introduction
The introduction to a quantitative study is usually written in the present tense and from the third person
point of view. It covers the following information:

 Identifies the research problem -- as with any academic study, you must state clearly and
concisely the research problem being investigated.
 Reviews the literature -- review scholarship on the topic, synthesizing key themes and, if
necessary, noting studies that have used similar methods of inquiry and analysis. Note where key
gaps exist and how your study helps to fill these gaps or clarifies existing knowledge.
 Describes the theoretical framework -- provide an outline of the theory or hypothesis
underpinning your study. If necessary, define unfamiliar or complex terms, concepts, or ideas and
provide the appropriate background information to place the research problem in proper context
[e.g., historical, cultural, economic, etc.].

Methodology

The methods section of a quantitative study should describe how each objective of your study will be
achieved. Be sure to provide enough detail to enable the reader can make an informed assessment of the
methods being used to obtain results associated with the research problem. The methods section should
be presented in the past tense.

 Study population and sampling -- where did the data come from; how robust is it; note where
gaps exist or what was excluded. Note the procedures used for their selection;
 Data collection – describe the tools and methods used to collect information and identify the
variables being measured; describe the methods used to obtain the data; and, note if the data
was pre-existing [i.e., government data] or you gathered it yourself. If you gathered it yourself,
describe what type of instrument you used and why. Note that no data set is perfect--describe
any limitations in methods of gathering data.
 Data analysis -- describe the procedures for processing and analyzing the data. If appropriate,
describe the specific instruments of analysis used to study each research objective, including
mathematical techniques and the type of computer software used to manipulate the data.

Results

The finding of your study should be written objectively and in a succinct and precise format. In quantitative
studies, it is common to use graphs, tables, charts, and other non-textual elements to help the reader
understand the data. Make sure that non-textual elements do not stand in isolation from the text but are
being used to supplement the overall description of the results and to help clarify key points being made.

 Statistical analysis -- how did you analyze the data? What were the key findings from the data?
The findings should be present in a logical, sequential order. Describe but do not interpret these
trends or negative results; save that for the discussion section. The results should be presented in
the past tense.

Discussion

Discussions should be analytic, logical, and comprehensive. The discussion should meld together your
findings in relation to those identified in the literature review, and placed within the context of the
theoretical framework underpinning the study. The discussion should be presented in the present tense.
  Interpretation of results -- reiterate the research problem being investigated and compare and
contrast the findings with the research questions underlying the study. Did they affirm predicted
outcomes or did the data refute it?
 Description of trends, comparison of groups, or relationships among variables -- describe any
trends that emerged from your analysis and explain all unanticipated and statistical insignificant
findings.
 Discussion of implications – what is the meaning of your results? Highlight key findings based on
the overall results and note findings that you believe are important. How have the results helped
fill gaps in understanding the research problem?
 Limitations -- describe any limitations or unavoidable bias in your study and, if necessary, note
why these limitations did not inhibit effective interpretation of the results.

Conclusion

End your study by to summarizing the topic and provide a final comment and assessment of the study.

 Summary of findings – synthesize the answers to your research questions. Do not report any
statistical data here; just provide a narrative summary of the key findings and describe what was
learned that you did not know before conducting the study.
 Recommendations – if appropriate to the aim of the assignment, tie key findings with policy
recommendations or actions to be taken in practice.
 Future research – note the need for future research linked to your study’s limitations or to any
remaining gaps in the literature that were not addressed in your study.

Reporting Quantitative Results

General Practices in Reporting Quantitative Data

 Data can be presented in text, table, or chart form. When presenting data in all three forms,
care should be taken to include only information and/or images that help to clarify points being
made.
 For reference purposes, tables are usually the sensible option. Extensive tables should usually
appear as appendices at the end of a report.
 In general, tables are better than graphs for giving structured numeric information. Graphs are
better for demonstrating trends, making comparisons or showing relationships.
 Text alone should not be used to convey more than three or four numbers. Sets of numerical
results should usually be presented as tables or pictures, rather than included in the text.
 When whole numbers are given in text, numbers less than, or equal to, nine should be written
as words, while numbers from 10 upwards should be written in digits.
 When decimal numbers are quoted, the number of significant digits should be consistent.
Generally, one point past the decimal point is sufficient.
 Tables and graphs should be self-explanatory. The reader should be able to understand them
without detailed reference to the text. The title should be informative and rows and columns of
tables or axes of graphs should be clearly labeled. On the other hand, the text should always
include mention of the key points in a table or figure. If a table does not warrant discussion, it
should not be there.
 Statistical information beyond means and frequencies (e.g., standard deviations, p-values, t-
values), is usually required in formal scientific papers, but may not be necessary for a more
 general readership. When presented, care should be taken to do so in a way that does not
obscure the main message of the table or graph.

Presenting Data in Charts and Graphs

Charts and graphs are often the best way to demonstrate trends in data and make comparisons between
different groups. Different types of graphs are required to most efficiently and effectively present
different types of findings. The following sections detail the most common types of charts and graphs and
the important rules governing their use.

Pie Charts
 Pie charts have limited utility. They can only be used to show parts of a whole (if all parts total
100%).
 Pie charts emphasize general findings, but do not make small differences apparent.
 Pie charts should only be used to represent categorical data with a relatively small number of
values and should not consist of more than five or six slices.
 When presenting a pie chart, it is better not to use 3-D features, or break out the pieces, as this
often makes it more difficult to compare the relative size of the slices.

 It is always necessary to include category labels or a legend that describes which slice
corresponds with which category. If labels are brief enough, it is better to place category labels
directly next to the pie slices to which they correspond.
 It is good practice to include value labels (indicating the percentage of the pie represented by a
given slice).
 It is also good to pre-sort data so that, clockwise or counter-clockwise, the relative size of pie
slices is most apparent.
 The purpose of color in pie charts is to differentiate between pie slices to further facilitate
comparison. When using color, it should be used thematically. The best use of color in a size-
ordered pie chart is a progression of dark to light hues from the largest slice to smallest slice
(see 2-D pie chart above).
 A bar graph, rather than multiple pie graphs, is the better option if data need to be compared by
more than one value. Pie graphs should not be used to represent more than one categorization
of data.
Multiple Pie Graphs
 A Single Bar Graph

Bar Graphs
 Bar graphs are used for direct comparison of data (e.g., student GPA’s by class year).
 Bar graphs can also be used to show time series data when the number of time intervals is
small.
 If all values are positive integers, the scale should generally use 0 as a baseline. In the event that
values include both positive and negative integers (e.g., in graphing differences in means), 0
should be the midpoint of the scale.
 Scale ranges should be standardized and not vary between graphs, when possible.
 Always try to avoid using 3-D features in a bar graph. The complexity of 3-D graphs makes them
ineffective in conveying results to most audiences and there is usually a greater amount of data
distortion that occurs.
 Bar graphs may be vertical or horizontal. The only difference between horizontal and vertical
bars is that horizontal bar charts are seldom used to portray time series.
 To facilitate comparison and analysis, it is desirable that columns be sorted in some systematic
order. The most common and visually effective schema is according to size of value.
 It may also be desirable to order findings by a particular category such as class year (see
Clustered Bar Graph below), where it is best to order sequentially from freshman to senior year
or visa versa, or by grade achieved, where it is best to order by the standardized grade scale.
 Stacked bar graphs, which consist of one or more segmented bars where each segment
represents the relative share of a total category, are generally not preferred because it is
difficult to make comparisons among the second, third, or subsequent segments without a
standard baseline.
 When graphing data from two or more different series, or different classes within the same
series, it is preferable to create a bar graph that groups these values together, side by side (see
below).
Line Graphs
 Line graphs are most often used to display time series data (e.g., the average GPA of students in
a starting cohort over their first eight semesters, or program enrollment over the past 10 years).
See graph below.

 Compared with bar graphs, line graphs are more effective in presenting five or more data points,
but less effective in providing emphasis on differences over relatively few periods of time.
 When plotting time series data in a line graph, it is convention that the x-axis (horizontal)
contains the categories of time (e.g., days of the week, months, years – depending on the data),
and the y-axis (vertical) has frequencies of what is being measured (see graphs below).
 Graphs with more than four or five lines tend to become confusing unless the lines are well
separated.
  In a line graph with more than one line, different line styles (e.g., solid line, dashed line, etc.),
colors and/or plotting symbols (e.g., asterisks, circles, etc.) should be used to distinguish the
lines.

Presenting Data in Tables

 Tables are the most effective way to present data for reference purposes.
 A table should always be given a meaningful, self-explanatory title.
 Each part of a table should be labeled clearly and abbreviations should be avoided.
 The number of digits and decimal places presented should be consistent and should be the
minimum number that is compatible with the purpose of the table.
 It is usually better to convert counts into percentages, unless providing a simple frequencies
table. More readers will care that 78% of students agreed with a statement rather than 325
students agreed.
 It is always important to include information in a table about the size of the sample from which
a percentage is derived.
 A table should be constructed so that it is easy for readers to see differences and trends. If a
table is presenting results from two or more different groups, years or survey cycles, it is good
to include a column that indicates either the percentage change or the significance of
differences observed.
Table 1

Comparision of Course Satisfaction Measures for Course X

2008 vs 2009
 Satisfaction Measure 2009 2008

Applicability of Material Covered 88% 86%

Access to Professor 79% 68%

Course Content 72% 67%

Course Organization 56% 53%

Class Size 43% 44%

Improved Version of Table 1

Comparision of Course Satisfaction Measures for Course X

2008 vs 2009
(% "Satisfied" or "Very Satisfied")

Satisfaction Measure 2009 2008 Difference

(N = 134 ) (N = 123 )

Applicability of Material Covered 88% 86% 2

Access to Professor 79% 68% 11

Course Content 72% 67% 5

Course Organization 56% 53% 3

Class Size 43% 44% -1

Note: Data taken from 2008 and 2009 end of term course evaluations for Course X

 It is best to present information in an order that makes sense to the reader by sorting from most
frequently chosen response or highest score to lowest (see tables above).
 A table should draw attention to the most salient points. Use boldface, italics, borders, and/or
colors to draw attention to the most important figures, and put totals in boldface (see tables
above).
 Always note the source of data presented in a table (see tables above).
 More complex tables that organize information by more than one level should be constructed to
best reflect how data are grouped. It is best to merge cells that apply to more than one column
in a table, rather than repeating the grouping information in more than one column. Shading
can also provide greater organization and distinction between groups of data (see tables
below).
Table 2

2008 vs 2009 Divisional Enrollments by Gender

Academic Division 2009 2009 2008 2008

Males Females Males Females

Physical Sciences 368 182 355 173

Natural Sciences 658 495 642 505

Humanities 352 435 375 415

Social Sciences 786 962 801 1002

Total 2164 2074 2173 2095

Improved Version of Table 2

2008 vs 2009 Divisional Enrollments by Gender

2009 2008

Males Females Males Females

Physical Sciences 368 182 355 173

Natural Sciences 658 495 642 505

Humanities 352 435 375 415

Social Sciences 786 962 801 1002

 Total 2164 2074 2173 2095

Sample Size Table

There are various formulas for calculating the required sample size based upon whether the
data collected is to be of a categorical or quantitative nature (e.g. is to estimate a proportion or a
mean). These formulas require knowledge of the variance or proportion in the population and a
determination as to the maximum desirable error, as well as the acceptable Type I error risk
(e.g., confidence level).
But why bother with these formulas?
It is possible to use one of them to construct a table that suggests the optimal sample size –
given a population size, a specific margin of error, and a desired confidence interval. This can
help researchers avoid the formulas altogether. The table below presents the results of one set
of these calculations. It may be used to determine the appropriate sample size for almost any
study.
Many researchers (and research texts) suggest that the first column within the table should
suffice (Confidence Level = 95%, Margin of Error = 5%). To use these values, simply determine
the size of the population down the left most column (use the next highest value if your exact
population size is not listed). The value in the next column is the sample size that is required to
generate a Margin of Error of 5% for any population proportion.
However, a 10% interval may be considered unreasonably large. Should more precision be
required (i.e., a smaller, more useful Margin of Error) or greater confidence desired (0.01), the
other columns of the table should be employed.
Thus, if you have 5000 customers and you want to sample a sufficient number to generate a
95% confidence interval that predicted the proportion who would be repeat customers within
plus or minus 2.5%, you would need responses from a (random) sample of 1176 of all your
customers.
As you can see, using the table is much simpler than employing a formula.
Professional researchers typically set a sample size level of about 500 to optimally estimate a
single population parameter (e.g., the proportion of likely voters who will vote for a particular
candidate). This will construct a 95% confidence interval with a Margin of Error of about 4.4%
(for large populations).
Since there is an inverse relationship between sample size and the Margin of Error, smaller
sample sizes will yield larger Margins of Error. For example, a sample size of only 100 will
construct a 95% confidence interval with a Margin of Error of almost 13%, too large a range for
estimating the true population proportion with any accuracy.
Note that all of the sample estimates discussed present figures for the largest possible sample
size for the desired level of confidence. Should the proportion of the sample with the desired
characteristic be substantially different than 50%, then the desired level of accuracy can be
established with a smaller sample. However, since you can’t know what this percentage is until
you actually ask a sample, it is wisest to assume that it will be 50% and use the listed larger
sample size.
The number of sub-groups (or “comparison” groups) is another consideration in the
determination of a sufficient sample size. Since the parameter must be measured for each
sub-group, the size of the sample for each sub-group must be sufficiently large to permit a
reasonable (sufficiently narrow) estimation.
Treat each sub-group as a population and then use the table to determine the recommended
sample size for each sub-group. Then use a stratified random sampling technique within each
sub-group to select the specific individuals to be included.

Sample Size: Your sample size is the amount of consumers in your target population that you
will be researching. This calculator provides a recommended sample size – i.e. the minimum
amount of consumers you need to research for your results to be statistically significant within
your defined parameters.
Population Size: The population size is the approximate amount of consumers in the group that
you want to research. For example, if you want to understand the internet usage habits of the
entire UK population, your population would be all UK consumers (64.6 million at the latest
estimate).
Confidence Level: A confidence level is defined as the statistical probability that the value of a
parameter falls within a specified range of values. Therefore a confidence level of N% means
you can be N% sure that your results contain the true mean average of the designated
population.
In market research, the most commonly used confidence level is 95%. A higher confidence level
indicates a higher probability that your results are accurate, but increasing it can dramatically
increase the required sample size. Finding a balance between confidence and an achievable
research goal is crucial.

In this calculation, each confidence level is translated to a z-score. A z-score is a statistical

method for rescaling data that helps researchers draw comparisons easier. The following table
details the z-score generated from each confidence level:
Confidence Level z-score
90% 1.645
95% 1.96
99% 2.58
Margin of Error: The margin of error is the maximum acceptable difference in results between
the population and sample. On a basic level, if a poll were to ask 1,000 people if they drive a car
and 70% of people were to answer yes – a margin of error of +/- 5% would indicate that in the
total population, between 66.5% and 73.5% would answer in the same way.
The smaller the margin of error, the more representative of the total population the results will
be. However, decreasing the margin of error will also result in a sharp increase in sample size.
We recommend using a 5% margin of error as standard, which should never be increased above
10%.

Simply follow the steps below to work out how many research participants you need to
complete your research.

S = (z2 (d(1 - d))/ e2) / 1 + (z2 (d(1 - d)) / e2)

S = sample size | P = population size | z = z-score | e = margin of error | d = standard deviation

Note that we assume a standard deviation of 0.5.

Now that you have calculated the recommended amount of participants required to make your
results statistically significant, the next step is to invite participants. In our experience, a typical
panel based survey will yield a 15%-20% response rate without an incentive, but approximately
a 30% response rate when a relevant incentive is offered. There are a multitude of factors that
can affect survey response rate, from length to design, acessibility to relevance.