ECOLOGY

Prof. M M Ghangrekar Department Civil Engineering, (Co-ordinator)

Prof. A K Gupta Department of Civil Engineering

Prof. Mihir K. Dash Centre for Oceans, Rivers, Atmosphere and Land Sciences

Prof. Abhijit Mukherjee Department of Geology and Geophysics

What is Ecology? The term ecology or oekologie was coined by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel in 1866, when he defined it as "the comprehensive science of the relationship of the organism to the environment." Haeckel did not elaborate on the
concept, and the first significant textbook on the subject (in 1895) (together with the first university course) was written by the Danish botanist, Eugenius Warming. For this early work, Warming is often identified as the founder of ecology.

Scope of Ecology Ecology is the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of life and the interactions between organisms and their environment.
a. Interactions determine distribution and abundance of organisms. b. Two main themes in ecology are: - Where do organisms live? & Why? - How many organisms are present? & Why?

c. Ecology was historically an observational science, often descriptive natural history.

d. An organisms environment has both abiotic and biotic components.

- Abiotic components are nonliving chemical and physical factors such as temperature, light, water, and nutrients. - Biotic components are living factors such as other organisms.

An ecosystem has abiotic and biotic components:

ABIOTIC components:

Solar energy provides practically all the energy for ecosystems.

Inorganic substances, e.g., sulfur, boron, tend to cycle through ecosystems. Organic compounds, such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and other complex molecules, form a link between biotic and abiotic components of the system.

 BIOTIC components: The biotic components of an ecosystem can be classified according to their mode of energy acquisition. In this type of classification, there are: Autotrophs and Heterotrophs

 Autotrophs (=self-nourishing) are called primary producers. Photoautotrophs fix energy from the sun and store it in complex organic compounds (= green plants, algae, some bacteria)
light

simple inorganic compounds

Photo-autotrophs

complex organic compounds

(Light & chlorophyll) 6CO2(gas) + 6H2O(liquid) --------------------------- -----C6H12O6(solid) + 6O2(gas) 6x (-393.5 kJ/mol CO2)

6x(-285.8 kJ/mol H2O liquid)

(-1250 kJ/mol glucose) +2826 kJ/mol glucose

Chemoautotrophs
Chemoautotrophs (chemosynthesizers) are bacteria that oxidize reduced inorganic substances (typically sulfur and ammonia compounds) and produce complex organic compounds. oxygen

reduced inorganic compounds

chemoautotrophs

complex organic compounds

Hydrogen sulfide chemosynthesis: CO2 + O2 + 4H2S CH2O + 4S + 3H2O (purple sulfur bacteria)

The Biotic Components of Ecosystems

Producers (autotrophs) - Photosynthesis Consumers (heterotrophs)

- Aerobic respiration
Decomposers

 Heterotrophs (=other-nourishing) cannot produce their own food directly from sunlight+ inorganic compounds. They require energy previously stored in complex molecules.
heat complex organic compounds simple inorganic compounds

heterotrophs

Heterotrophs can be grouped as: consumers decomposers

2. Ecology and evolutionary biology are closely related sciences Events that occur in the framework of ecological time (minutes, days, years) translate into effects over evolutionary time (decades, millennia). Example: Hawks feeding on mice impact mouse population and may eventually lead to selection for mice with fur as camouflage.

3. Ecological research scale ranges from individuals to the biosphere a. Organismal ecology is concerned about the way in which an individual interacts with its environment. b. Population ecology is the study of a group of individuals of the same species. c. Community ecology deals with all interacting species within a particular area.

d. An ecosystem consists of all abiotic factors plus all organisms that exist in a certain area Ecosystem ecology. Landscape ecology- interactions among ecosystems.

e. The biosphere is the global ecosystem. Global climate research is an example of ecology at the biosphere scale.
biosphere ecosystem
Org anis m

Community ecology

Population ecology

II. Factors affecting the distribution of organisms

- Biogeography is the study of past and present distribution Physically, the Palearctic is the largest of individual species.
The Nearctic ecozone covers most of North America, including Greenland and the highlands of Mexico

ecozone. It includes the terrestrial ecoregions of Europe, Asia north of the Himalaya foothills, northern Africa, and the northern and central parts of the Arabian Peninsula
The Orient means "the East." It is a traditional designation for anything that belongs to the Eastern world or the Far East, in relation to Europe

Neotropic or Neotropical zone is one of the eight terrestrial ecozones. This ecozone includes South and Central America, the Mexican lowlands, the Caribbean islands, and southern Florida, because these regions share a large number of plant and animal groups.

A. Species dispersal contributes to the distribution of organisms Dispersal refers to the process of distribution of individuals within geographic population boundaries. Question: Is the distribution of a species limited by dispersal, i.e. by movement of the organisms? Answer can be obtained by transplant experiments. If the transplant is successful, then the organisms just havent reached the target area. If the transplant is not successful, then other factors limit the distribution of the organisms, such as competitors, lack of a food source, etc.

B. Behavior and habitat selection contribute to the distribution of organisms 1. Organisms may not occupy all potentially suitable habitat. Why? a. Evolution doesnt lead to perfect organisms. b. Evolution is an ongoing process. Environments change, but it takes a while for organisms to respond.

C. Biotic factors affect distribution 1. Organisms required for potential community members to colonize may be lacking. - Pollinators, prey, predators that limit competition

D. Abiotic factors affect distribution 1. Abiotic factors of interest include:

- Temperature (range from 0 to 45 C) - Water - Sunlight - Wind (increases heat & water loss) - Rocks and soil

Fig. 50.13
Copyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Local and seasonal effects on climate. Bodies of water and topographic features such as mountain ranges can affect local climates. Ocean currents can influence climate in coastal areas. Mountains affect rainfall greatly.

Copyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Lake stratification and mixing alters oxygen and nutrient levels. Dependent on temperature changes and effect on water density.

THE RULES OF ECOLOGY

F. A. BAZZAZ: 1. Everything is connected to everything else. 2. Everything must go somewhere. 3. There is no such thing as a free lunch.

To understand any system you must understand the next larger system.

What sustains life on earth?

The one-way flow of highquality energy The cycling of matter or nutrients Gravity
Allows the planet to hold onto its atmosphere Causes the downward movement of nutrients

How does the sun sustain life on earth?

The Laws of Thermodynamics

Energy flow is a one-directional process. sun---> heat (longer wavelengths)

FIRST LAW of THERMODYNAMICS: Energy can be converted from one form to another, but cannot be created or destroyed.

Laws Governing Energy Changes Second Law of Thermodynamics

In every transformation, some energy is converted to heat (lower quality) You cannot break even in terms of energy quality

Energy flow
Simplistically:
heat

Producers

Consumers

Decomposers

heat
This pattern of energy flow among different organisms is the TROPHIC STRUCTURE of an ecosystem.

Connections: Matter and Energy Laws and Environmental Problems High-throughput (waste) economy

Matter-recycling economy
Low-throughput economy

Ecosystem Function
#1. Energy flow in an ecosystem is represented by a food web.
The amount of energy available to the organisms at each trophic level decreases as one moves up the food chain since energy is lost as heat and organisms use energy to sustain themselves Remember the laws of energy?

Because the amount of energy decreases at each successive trophic level, the number of organisms also decreases Only approximately 10% of the energy is transferred to the next trophic level. So, are there more producers or consumers on Earth?

Energy and biomass pyramids

Pyramid of energy
A pyramid of energy depicts the energy flow, or productivity, of each trophic level. Due to the Laws of Thermodynamics, each higher level must be smaller than lower levels, due to loss of some energy as heat (via respiration) within each level. Energy flow in :

carnivores herbivores producers

Pyramid of numbers
A pyramid of numbers indicates the number of individuals in each trophic level.

Since the size of individuals may vary widely and may not indicate the productivity of that individual, pyramids of numbers say little or nothing about the amount of energy moving through the ecosystem.
# of carnivores # of herbivores # of producers

Pyramid of standing crop

A pyramid of standing crop indicates how much biomass is present in each trophic level at any one time. As for pyramids of numbers, a pyramid of standing crop may not well reflect the flow of energy through the system, due to different sizes and growth rates of organisms. biomass of carnivores biomass of herbivores biomass of producers (at one point in time)

Inverted pyramids
A pyramid of standing crop (or of numbers) may be inverted, i.e., a higher trophic level may have a larger standing crop than a lower trophic level.

This can occur if the lower trophic level has a high rate of turnover of small individuals (and high rate of productivity), such that the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics are not violated.

biomass of carnivores biomass of herbivores biomass of producers (at one point in time)

Pyramid of yearly biomass production

If the biomass produced by a trophic level is summed over a year (or the appropriate complete cycle period), then the pyramid of total biomass produced must resemble the pyramid of energy flow, since biomass can be equated to energy. Yearly biomass production (or energy flow) of:

carnivores herbivores producers

 Note that pyramids of energy and yearly biomass production can never be inverted, since this would violate the laws of thermodynamics. Pyramids of standing crop and numbers can be inverted, since the amount of organisms at any one time does not indicate the amount of energy flowing through the system. E.g., consider the amount of food you eat in a year compared to the amount on hand in your pantry.

The amount of energy available in an ecosystem depends on the type of vegetation the area can support. This is measured as an areas net primary productivity (NPP). The higher the NPP, the greater the diversity of animals in that ecosystem.

Ecosystem Function (cont)

#2. Nutrients are recycled within an ecosystem.
Water * Nitrogen Carbon * Phosphorus Oxygen * Sulfur

Water Cycle
evaporation returns water vapor to the atmosphere condensation of water vapor in the air leads to precipitation infiltration of rainwater replenishes groundwater supplies surface runoff of rainwater replenishes surface water supplies

The Carbon Cycle

Driven by biological forces: photosynthesis and respiration

Carbon Cycle
Sinks: - Lithosphere limestone (largest reservoir) - hydrosphere ocean (2nd largest) - Atmosphere in form of CO2 - biosphere wood, plants, dead animals

Oxygen Cycle
Essential for animals during respiration, released by plants Cycles much like the carbon cycle What is threatening this cycle? Forest deforestation, ocean pollution, etc

Root nodules on legumes

Rhizobium Azotobacter

Cyanobacteria

Driven by biological forces: bacteria

 78% of the volume of trophosphere Most complex cycle N2 gas cant be used as is it must be fixed so that organisms can use it Steps to the cycle: b/c of complexity, no certain order
N Fixation occurs in plant, by bacteria Ammonification Nitrification Assimilation Denitrification

Nitrogen Cycle

N2 gas is modified by nitrogen-fixing bacteria in legumes into ammonia (NH3) NITROGEN FIXATION aids in production of sugars/starches Bacteria turn wastes and detritus into ammonia AMMONIFICATION released into atm NH3 is converted into nitrite (NO2-) which is then used to produce nitrate (NO3-) - NITRIFICATION

Phosphorus Cycle
phosphorus is released as rocks erode and plants assimilate this Very slow process phosphorus passes from one organism to another in the food chain decomposers release phosphorus during decomposition Mined for production of fertilizer. Mined in Tampa, FL

The Phosphorus Cycle

Driven by physical forces

Sulfur Cycle
sulfur is released as rocks erode and plants assimilate this Mostly found under ground like phosphorus H2S is released by decomposers and during volcanic eruptions; some H2S in soil is converted into sulfur by aerobic bacteria and plants assimilate this 99% of all sulfur in the atm is due to man SO2 gas is released by industries; SO2 then reacts with water to form H2SO4 which falls to the earth as acid rain

Water Cycle
condensation of water vapor in the air leads to precipitation evaporation returns water vapor to the atmosphere infiltration of rainwater replenishes groundwater supplies surface runoff of rainwater replenishes surface water supplies

Limiting Factor Principle

Too much or too little of any biotic factor can limit or prevent growth of a population, even if all other factors are optimal for that population.
Single factor most over-abundant or deficient in an ecosystem determines presence/absence of specific plants/animals.

Ecosystem Concepts and Components

Biomes Role of climate Aquatic life zones

A. Aquatic biomes cover about 75% of the earths surface

- Wetlands - Lakes

- Rivers, streams
- Intertidal zones - Oceanic pelagic biome

- Coral reefs
- Benthos

B. Terrestrial biomes - Tropical forest - Savanna - Desert - Chaparral - Temperate grassland - Temperate deciduous forest - Coniferous forest - Tundra

Tropical Forest: Vertical stratification with trees in canopy blocking light to bottom strata. Many trees covered by epiphytes (plants that grow on other plants).

Temperate Deciduous Forest: Mid-latitudes with moderate amounts of moisture, distinct vertical strata: trees, understory shrubs, herbaceous sub-stratum. Loss of leaves in cold, many animals hibernate or migrate then. Original forests lost from North America by logging and clearing.

Coniferous forest: Largest terrestial biome on earth, old growth forests rapidly disappearing, usually receives lots of moisture as rain or snow.

Tundra: Permafrost (Permanent frozen ground), bitter cold, high winds and thus no trees. Has 20% of land surface on earth.