Molecular Biochemistry II

Fatty Acid Synthesis

Copyright 1999-2009 by Joyce J. Diwan. All rights reserved.

O H3C C SCoA

acetyl-CoA

The input to fatty acid synthesis is acetyl-CoA, which is carboxylated to malonyl-CoA.

OOC

CH2

SCoA

malonyl-CoA

ATP-dependent carboxylation provides energy input. The CO2 is lost later during condensation with the growing fatty acid. The spontaneous decarboxylation drives the condensation reaction.

Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase catalyzes the 2-step reaction by which acetyl-CoA is carboxylated to form malonyl-CoA.

Enzyme-biotin HCO3 + ATP ADP + Pi Enzyme-biotin-CO2 O CH3-C-SCoA acetyl-CoA

-

ll

2
Enzyme-biotin O
ll

O2C-CH2-C-SCoA malonyl-CoA

As with other carboxylation reactions, the enzyme prosthetic group is biotin. ATP-dependent carboxylation of the biotin, carried out at one active site 1 , is followed by transfer of the carboxyl group to acetyl-CoA at a second active site 2 .

Enzyme-biotin HCO3 + ATP ADP + Pi Enzyme-biotin-CO2 O CH3-C-SCoA acetyl-CoA

-

ll

2
Enzyme-biotin O
ll

O2C-CH2-C-SCoA malonyl-CoA

The overall reaction, which is spontaneous, may be summarized as: HCO3 + ATP + acetyl-CoA ADP + Pi + malonyl-CoA

O O C O N C NH CH CH H2C S CH O (CH2)4 C NH O C

(CH2)4 CH

Carboxybiotin

lysine NH residue

Biotin is linked to the enzyme by an amide bond between the terminal carboxyl of the biotin side chain and the e-amino group of a lysine residue. The combined biotin and lysine side chains act as a long flexible arm that allows the biotin ring to translocate between the 2 active sites.

Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase, which converts acetyl-CoA to malonyl-CoA, is the committed step of the fatty acid synthesis pathway. The mammalian enzyme is regulated, by

phosphorylation
allosteric control by local metabolites.

Conformational changes associated with regulation:

In the active conformation, Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase associates to form multimeric filamentous complexes. Transition to the inactive conformation is associated with dissociation to yield the monomeric form of the enzyme (protomer).

AMP functions as an energy sensor and regulator of metabolism. When ATP production does not keep up with needs, a higher portion of a cell's adenine nucleotide pool is in the form of AMP. AMP promotes catabolic pathways that lead to synthesis of ATP. AMP inhibits energy-utilizing synthetic pathways. E.g., AMP regulates fatty acid synthesis and catabolism by controlling availability of malonyl-CoA.

O H3C C SCoA

AMP-Activated Kinase catalyzes phosphorylation of Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase. This causes inhibition of ATP-utilizing of malonylCoA production.

acetyl-CoA ATP + HCO3 Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase (inhibited by AMP-Activated Kinase)

SCoA

ADP + Pi

O OOC CH2 C

malonyl-CoA

Fatty acid synthesis is diminished by lack of the substrate malonyl-CoA. As discussed earlier, fatty acid oxidation is stimulated due to decreased inhibition by malonyl-CoA of transfer of fatty acids into mitochondria.

O H3C C SCoA

acetyl-CoA ATP + HCO3 Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase (inhibited by AMP-Activated Kinase)

ADP + Pi

A cAMP cascade, O activated by glucagon & OOC CH2 C SCoA epinephrine when blood malonyl-CoA glucose is low, may also result in phosphorylation of Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase via cAMP-Dependent Protein Kinase.

With Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase inhibited, acetyl-CoA remains available for synthesis of ketone bodies, the alternative metabolic fuel used when blood glucose is low.

Phosphorylated protomer of Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase (inactive) Citrate

Dephosphorylated, e.g., by insulinactivated Protein Phosphatase

Palmitoyl-CoA
Phosphorylated, e.g., via AMP-activated Kinase when cellular stress or exercise depletes ATP.

Dephosphorylated Polymer of Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase (active) Regulation of Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase

The antagonistic effect of insulin, produced when blood glucose is high, is attributed to activation of Protein Phosphatase.

Phosphorylated protomer of Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase (inactive) Citrate

Dephosphorylated, e.g., by insulinactivated Protein Phosphatase

Palmitoyl-CoA
Phosphorylated, e.g., via AMP-activated Kinase when cellular stress or exercise depletes ATP.

Regulation of Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase by local metabolites:

Dephosphorylated Polymer of Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase (active) Regulation of Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase

Palmitoyl-CoA (product of Fatty Acid Synthase) promotes the inactive conformation, diminishing production of malonyl-CoA, the precursor of fatty acid synthesis. This is an example of feedback inhibition.

Glucose-6-phosphatase glucose-6-P glucose Gluconeogenesis Glycolysis pyruvate fatty acids acetyl CoA ketone bodies cholesterol citrate

Citrate allosterically activates AcetylCoA Carboxylase.

oxaloacetate Krebs Cycle

[Citrate] is high when there is adequate acetyl-CoA entering Krebs Cycle.

Excess acetyl-CoA is then converted via malonyl-CoA to fatty acids for storage.

Fatty acid synthesis from acetyl-CoA & malonyl-CoA occurs by a series of reactions that are: in bacteria catalyzed by 6 different enzymes plus a separate acyl carrier protein (ACP)

in mammals catalyzed by individual domains of a very large polypeptide that includes an ACP domain.
Evolution of the mammalian Fatty Acid Synthase apparently has involved gene fusion. NADPH serves as electron donor in the two reactions involving substrate reduction.

The NADPH is produced mainly by the Pentose Phosphate Pathway.

H H3N+ C CH2 SH COO

SH CH2 CH2 NH C CH2 CH2 NH C HO H3C C C H2C O H CH3 O O P O O O

Coenzyme A
-mercaptoethylamine

Fatty Acid cysteine Synthase prosthetic groups: the thiol of the sidechain of a cysteine residue of Condensing Enzyme domain.

pantothenate
NH2 N

ADP-3'phosphate
O P O O

N CH2 H H O

N O H H OH O

the thiol of phosphopantetheine, equivalent in structure to part of coenzyme A.

phosphopantetheine

P O

SH

Phosphopantetheine (Pant) is covalently linked via a phosphate ester to a serine OH of the acyl carrier protein domain of Fatty Acid Synthase. The long flexible arm of phosphopantetheine helps its thiol to move from one active site to another within the complex.

CH2 CH2 NH C CH2 CH2 NH C HO H3C C C H2C O H CH3 O O P O

phosphopantetheine of acyl carrier protein -mercaptoethylamine

pantothenate

NH O CH2 CH C

serine residue
O

phosphate

Enoyl ACP N- Condensing Malonyl/acetyl-CoA Dehydratase Reductase -Ketoacyl (Pant) Thioesterase -C Enzyme (Cys) Transacylase (Ser) Reductase

Order of domains in primary structure of mammalian Fatty Acid Synthase

As each of the substrates acetyl-CoA & malonyl-CoA bind to the complex, the initial attacking group is the oxygen of a serine hydroxyl group of the Malonyl/acetyl-CoA Transacylase enzyme domain.
Each acetyl or malonyl moiety is transiently in ester linkage to this serine hydroxyl, before being transferred into thioester linkage with the phosphopantetheine thiol of the acyl carrier protein (ACP) domain. Acetate is subsequently transferred to a cysteine thiol of the Condensing Enzyme domain.

acetyl-S-CoA HS-CoA Pant SH Cys SH

malonyl-S-CoA HS-CoA Cys S C CH3 O Pant Cys S O C CH3 O

CO2 Pant Cys SH O

Pant

SH

S C CH2

S C CH2 C CH3 O

1 Malonyl/acetyl-CoA-ACP Transacylase COO 2 Malonyl/acetyl-CoA-ACP Transacylase 3 Condensing Enzyme (-Ketoacyl Synthase)

The condensation reaction (step 3) involves decarboxylation of the malonyl moiety, followed by attack of the resultant carbanion on the carbonyl carbon of the acetyl (or acyl) moiety.

NADPH NADP+ Pant S C CH2 C CH3 O O Cys SH Pant Cys SH O

H2O Pant

NADPH NADP+ Cys SH O Pant Cys SH O

S C CH2 HC CH3

S C CH

S C CH2 CH2 CH3

OH

HC CH3

4 -Ketoacyl-ACP Reductase 5 -Hydroxyacyl-ACP Dehydratase 6 Enoyl-ACP Reductase

4. The -ketone is reduced to an alcohol by e transfer from NADPH. 5. Dehydration yields a trans double bond. 6. Reduction by NADPH yields a saturated chain.

Malonyl-S-CoA HS-CoA Pant S C CH2 CH2 CH3 O Cys SH Pant Cys S C CH2 CH2 CH3 O Pant Cys S O C CH2 CH2 CH3 O

SH

S C CH2 COO

7 Condensing Enzyme 2 Malonyl/acetyl-CoA-ACP Transacylase (repeat).

Following transfer of the growing fatty acid from phosphopantetheine to the Condensing Enzyme's cysteine sulfhydryl, the cycle begins again, with another malonyl-CoA.

Product release: When the fatty acid is 16 carbon atoms long, a Thioesterase domain catalyzes hydrolysis of the thioester linking the fatty acid to phosphopantetheine. The 16-C saturated fatty acid palmitate is the final product of the Fatty Acid Synthase complex.

Enoyl ACP N- Condensing Malonyl/acetyl-CoA Dehydratase Reductase -Ketoacyl (Pant) Thioesterase -C Enzyme (Cys) Transacylase (Ser) Reductase

Order of domains in primary structure of mammalian Fatty Acid Synthase

The primary structure of the mammalian Fatty Acid Synthase protein is summarized above. Fatty Acid Synthase in mammals is a homo-dimer. X-Ray crystallographic analysis at 3.2 resolution shows the dimeric Fatty Acid Synthase to have an X-shape. The 2 copies of the protein are displayed at right in different colors. Fatty Acid Synthase PDB 2VZ8

Enoyl ACP N- Condensing Malonyl/acetyl-CoA Dehydratase Reductase -Ketoacyl (Pant) Thioesterase -C Enzyme (Cys) Transacylase (Ser) Reductase

Order of domains in primary structure of mammalian Fatty Acid Synthase

The domain arrangement is shown below. Each copy of the dimeric protein has an S shape, with the N-terminal KS (Condensing Enzyme / -Ketoacyl Synthase) domain folded back to form part of the central interaction domain.
KR = -Ketoacyl Reductase; ER = Enoyl Reductase; DH = Dehydratase; KS = -Ketoacyl Synthase (Condensing Enzyme); MAT = Malonyl/Acetyl-CoA Transacylase.
KR

ER
DH KS

ER
DH KS

KR

arm

MAT

MAT Arrangement of domains in Fatty Acid Synthase

leg

Enoyl ACP N- Condensing Malonyl/acetyl-CoA Dehydratase Reductase -Ketoacyl (Pant) Thioesterase -C Enzyme (Cys) Transacylase (Ser) Reductase

Order of domains in primary structure of mammalian Fatty Acid Synthase

The X-ray analysis does not resolve the C-terminal ACP (acyl carrier protein) & Thioesterase domains, predicted from the primary structure to be near the KR domains. These domains may be too flexible to be resolved by crystallography.
KR = -Ketoacyl Reductase; ER = Enoyl Reductase; DH = Dehydratase; KS = -Ketoacyl Synthase (Condensing Enzyme); MAT = Malonyl/Acetyl-CoA Transacylase.
KR

ER
DH KS

ER
DH KS

KR

arm

MAT

MAT Arrangement of domains in Fatty Acid Synthase

leg

Fatty Acid Synthase complex is somewhat asymmetric.

There is evidence for conformational changes relating to catalysis.

Protein flexibility may facilitate transfer of ACP-attached reaction intermediates among the several active sites in each half of the complex.
For images see: website (ETH Zurich) website (Asturias lab,
Scripps)

article (Maier, Leibundgut

& Ban; requires subscription to Science).
Fatty Acid Synthase PDB 2VZ8

Explore with Chime the structure of the Mammalian Fatty Acid Synthase III.

Palmitate, a 16-C saturated fatty acid, is the final product of the Fatty Acid Synthase reactions. 1 1. a. How many acetyl-CoA used for initial priming of enzyme? _____ b. How many acetyl-CoA used for synthesis of each malonate? ____ 1

c. How many malonate used (how many reaction cycles) per 7 synthesis of one 16-C palminate? ________
d. Total acetyl-CoA used for priming & for syntheisis of malonate, a + b(c): ________ 8 2. a. How many ~P bonds of ATP used for synthesis of each 1 malonate? ________ b. Total ~P bonds of ATP used for synthesis of one 16-C palmitate, 7 2a(1c): ________ 3. a. How many NADPH used per reaction cycle? __________ 2 b. Total NADPH used per synthesis of one 16-C palmitate, 3a(1c): 14 _________

Summary (ignoring H+ & water):

Write a balanced equation for synthesis of palmitate from acetyl-CoA, listing net inputs and outputs: 8 acetyl-CoA + 14 NADPH + 7 ATP palmitate + 14 NADP+ + 8 CoA + 7 ADP + 7 Pi Summary based on malonate as an input: acetyl-CoA + 7 malonyl-CoA + 14 NADPH palmitate + 7 CO2 + 14 NADP+ + 8 CoA

Fatty acid synthesis occurs in the cytosol. Acetyl-CoA generated in mitochondria is transported to the cytosol via a shuttle mechanism involving citrate.

-Oxidation & Fatty Acid Synthesis Compared

Oxidation Pathway Fatty Acid Synthesis pathway location acyl carriers (thiols) e acceptors/donor -OH intermediate 2-C product/donor mitochondrial matrix Coenzyme-A FAD & NAD+ L acetyl-CoA cytosol phosphopantetheine (ACP) & cysteine NADPH D malonyl-CoA (& acetyl-CoA)

Fatty Acid Synthase is transcriptionally regulated. In liver: Insulin, a hormone produced when blood glucose is high, stimulates Fatty Acid Synthase expression. Thus excess glucose is stored as fat. Transcription factors that that mediate the stimulatory effect of insulin include USFs (upstream stimulatory factors) and SREBP-1. SREBPs (sterol response element binding proteins) were first identified for their regulation of cholesterol synthesis. Polyunsaturated fatty acids diminish transcription of the Fatty Acid Synthase gene in liver cells, by suppressing production of SREBPs.

In fat cells:
Expression of SREBP-1 and of Fatty Acid Synthase is inhibited by leptin, a hormone that has a role in regulating food intake and fat metabolism. Leptin is produced by fat cells in response to excess fat storage.

Leptin regulates body weight by decreasing food intake, increasing energy expenditure, and inhibiting fatty acid synthesis.

Elongation beyond the 16-C length of the palmitate product of Fatty Acid Synthase is mainly catalyzed by enzymes associated with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). ER enzymes lengthen fatty acids produced by Fatty Acyl Synthase as well as dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids. Fatty acids esterified to coenzyme A serve as substrates. Malonyl-CoA is the donor of 2-carbon units in a reaction sequence similar to that of Fatty Acid Synthase except that individual steps are catalyzed by separate proteins. A family of enzymes designated Fatty Acid Elongases or ELOVL (elongation of very long chain fatty acid) catalyze the initial condensation step.

10 9

O C OH

oleate 18:1 cis D9

Desaturases introduce double bonds at specific positions in a fatty acid chain. Mammalian cells are unable to produce double bonds at certain locations, e.g., D12. Thus some polyunsaturated fatty acids are dietary essentials, e.g., linoleic acid, 18:2 cis D9,12 (18 C atoms long, with cis double bonds at carbons 9-10 & 12-13).

10 9

O C OH

oleate 18:1 cis D9

Formation of a double bond in a fatty acid involves the following endoplasmic reticulum membrane proteins in mammalian cells: NADH-cyt b5 Reductase, a flavoprotein with FAD as prosthetic group. Cytochrome b5, which may be a separate protein or a domain at one end of the desaturase. Desaturase, with an active site that contains two iron atoms complexed by histidine residues.

The desaturase catalyzes a mixed function oxidation reaction.

There is a 4-electron reduction of O2 2 H2O as a fatty acid is oxidized to form a double bond. 2e pass from NADH to the desaturase via the FAD-containing reductase & cytochrome b5, the order of electron transfer being: NADH FAD cyt b5 desaturase 2e are extracted from the fatty acid as the double bond is formed. E.g., the overall reaction for desaturation of stearate (18:0) to form oleate (18:1 cis D9) is: stearate + NADH + H+ + O2 oleate + NAD+ + 2H2O