Elastic Properties and Anisotropy of

Elastic Behavior
Figure 7-1 Anisotropic materials: (a) rolled material,
(b) wood, (c) glass-fiber cloth in an epoxy matrix, and
(d) a crystal with cubic unit cell.
Real materials are never perfectly isotropic. In some
cases (e.g. composite materials) the differences in
properties for different directions are so large that one
can not assume isotropic behavior - Anisotropic.

There is need to discuss Hookes Law for anisotropic
cases in general. This can then be reduced to isotropic
cases - material property (e.g., elastic constant) is the
same in all directions.
In the general 3-D case, there are six components of
stress and a corresponding six components of strain.
In highly anisotropic materials, any one component of
stress can cause strain in all six components.
For the generalized case, Hookes law may be expressed
as:


where,


Both S
ijkl
and C
ijkl
are fourth-rank tensor quantities.
j ij i
j ij i
S
C
o c
c o
=
=
Compliance S
t cons Elastic or Stiffness C

) tan (
(7-2)
(7-1)
Expansion of either Eqs. 7-1 or 7-2 will produce nine
(9) equations, each with nine (9) terms, leading to 81
constants in all.

It is important to note that both o
ij
and c
ij
are symmetric
tensors.

Symmetric tensor Means that the off-diagonal
components are equal. For example, in case of stress:
32 23 21 12 31 13
, o o o o o o = = =

We can therefore write:

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\
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\
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33 23 13
23 22 12
13 12 11
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
o o o
o o o
o o o
o o o
o o o
o o o
(7-3)
Similarly, the strain tensor can be written as:

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\
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\
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33 23 13
23 22 12
13 12 11
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
c c c
c c c
c c c
c c c
c c c
c c c
(7-4)
Symmetry effect leads to a significant simplification of
the stress-strain relationship of Eqs. 7-1 and 7-2.

We can write:




We can also write:
lk ijlk ij kl ijkl ij
S or S o c o c = =
and since
ijlk ijkl lk kl lk ijlk kl ijkl
S S and S S = = = ; ; o o o o
jikl ijkl
kl jikl ji kl ijkl ij
S S
S S
=
= = = o c o c
The direct consequence of the symmetry in the
stress and strain tensors is that only 36
components of the compliance tensor are
independent and distinct terms.

Similarly, only 36 components of the stiffness
tensor are independent and distinct terms.

Additional simplification of the stress-strain relationship
can be realized through simplifying the matrix notation
for stresses and strains.
We can replace the indices as follows:
3 33
2 22
1 11

6 12
5 13
4 23

11 12 13 1 6 5

22 23 2 4

33 3
=
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\
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Notation I
Notation II
The foregoing transformation is easy to remember: In
other to obtain notation II, one must proceed first along
the diagonal ( ) and then back ( ).

Notation II method makes life very easy when
correlating the stresses and strains for general case, in
which the elastic properties of a material are dependent
on its orientations.
3 2 1 6 5 4
We now have the stress and strain, in general form, as
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\
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\
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3
4 5
4
2
6
5 6
1
3 4 5
4 2 6
5 6 1
2 2
2 2
2 2
c
c c
c
c
c
c c
c
o o o
o o o
o o o
and
It should be noted that ,
and , but
2 2 2 1 1 1
, c c c c = =
33 3
c c =
12 12 6
13 13 5
23 23 4
2
2
2
c c
c c
c c
= =
= =
= =
(7-5)
In matrix format, the stress-strain relation showing the
36 (6 x 6) independent components of stiffness can be
represented as:
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\
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\
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=
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\
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6
5
4
3
2
1
66 65 64 63 62 61
56 55 54 53 52 51
46 45 44 43 42 41
36 35 34 33 32 31
26 25 24 23 22 21
16 15 14 13 12 11
6
5
4
3
2
1
c
c
c
c
c
c
o
o
o
o
o
o
C C C C C C
C C C C C C
C C C C C C
C C C C C C
C C C C C C
C C C C C C
j ij i j ij i
S and C o c c o = =
Or in short notation, we can write:
(7-6)
Further reductions in the number of independent
constants are possible by employing other symmetry
considerations to Eq. 7-6.
Symmetry in Stiffness and Compliance matrices
requires that:

Of the 36 constants, there are six constants where i = j,
leaving 30 constants where i = j.
But only one-half of these are independent constants
since C
ij
= C
ji

Therefore, for the general anisotropic linear elastic solid
there are:
independent elastic constant.
ji ij ji ij
S S and C C = =
21 6
2
30
= +
The 21 independent elastic constants can be reduced still
further by considering the symmetry conditions found in
different crystal structures.
In Isotropic case, the elastic constants are reduced from
21 to 2.
Different crystal systems can be characterized exclusively
by their symmetries. Table 7-1 presents the different
symmetry operations defining the seven crystal systems.
The seven crystalline systems can be perfectly described
by their axes of rotation. For example, a threefold rotation
is a rotation of 120
o
(3 x 120
o
= 360
o
); after 120
o
the
crystal system comes to a position identical to the initial
one.
Table 7.1 Minimum Number of Symmetry Operations in
Various Systems
______________________________________________
System Rotation
______________________________________________
Triclinic None (or center of symmetry)
Monoclinic 1 twofold rotation
Orthorhombic 2 perpendicular twofold rotation
Tetragonal 1 fourfold rotation around [001]
Rhombohedral 1 threefold rotation around [111]
Hexagonal 1sixfold rotation around [0001]
Cubic 4 threefold rotations around <111>

o
c b a
90 = = =
= =
| o
o
c b a
90 = = =
= =
| o
o
c b a
90 = = =
= =
| o
The hexagonal system exhibits a sixfold rotation around the
[0001] - c axis; after 60 degrees, the structure superimposes
upon itself.
In terms of a matrix, we have the following:

Orthorhombic Tetragonal


(
(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(
(

66 . . . . .
0 44 . . . .
0 0 44 . . .
0 0 0 33 . .
16 0 0 13 11 .
16 0 0 13 12 11
,
66 . . . . .
0 55 . . . .
0 0 44 . . .
0 0 0 33 . .
0 0 0 23 22 .
0 0 0 13 12 11
(7.7a)
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

x 44 . . . .
0 0 44 . . .
0 0 0 33 . .
0 0 0 13 11 .
0 0 0 13 12 11
Hexagonal
where
) (
2
1
), ( 2
12 11
12 11
C C x
s s x


or
(7.7b)
Laminated composites made by the consolidation of
prepregged sheets, with individual piles having
different fiber orientations, have orthotropic symmetry
with nine independent elastic constant.
This is analogous to orthorhombic symmetry, and
possess symmetry about three orthogonal (oriented 90
o

to each other) planes. The elastic constants along the
axes of these three planes are different.
The number of independent elastic constants in a cubic system
is three (3).
For isotropic materials ( most polycrystalline aggregates can
be treated as such) there are two (2) independent constants, b/c :
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

44 . . . .
0 44 . . .
0 0 44 . .
0 0 0 11 .
0 0 0 12 11 .
0 0 0 12 12 11
2
C C
C
12 11
44

=
(7.8)
Cubic
(7.7c)
The stiffness matrix of an isotropic system is:
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

2
. . . . .
0
2
. . . .
0 0
2
. . .
0 0 0 . .
0 0 0 .
0 0 0
12 11
12 11
12 11
11
12 11
12 12 11
C C
C C
C C
C
C C
C C C
(7.9)
For cubic systems, Equation (7-8) does not apply, and we
define an anisotropy ratio (also called the Zener anisotropy
ratio, in honor of the scientist who introduced it):
Several metals have high A anisotropy ratio.
Aluminum and tungsten, have values of A very close
to 1. Single crystals of tungsten are almost isotropic.
12 11
44
2
C C
C
A

=
(7.10)
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

) ( 2 . . . . .
0 ) ( 2 . . . .
0 0 ) ( 2 . . .
0 0 0 . .
0 0 0 .
0 0 0
12 11
12 11
12 11
11
12 11
12 12 11
S S
S S
S S
S
S S
S S S
(7.11)
Elastic compliances - for the isotropic case:
Similarly, the 81 components of elastic compliance for the
cubic system have been reduced to three (3) independent
ones while for the isotropic case, only two (2) independent
elastic constants are needed.

The elastic constants for an isotropic material are given
by:

Youngs modulus
Rigidity or Shear modulus
11
1
S
E =
(7.12)
4 12 11
1
) ( 2
1
S S S
G =

=
(7.13)
Compressibility (B) and bulk modulus (K):
Poissons ratio
Lames constants:
) (
3
1
1
13 12 11
33 22 11
o o o
c c c
+ +
+ +
= =
K
B
11
12
S
S
v =
12
44
12 11 44
1
) (
2
1
C
G
S
C C C u
=
= = = =

(7.14)
(7.15)
(7.16)
(7.17)
The equation to determine the compliance of isotropic
materials can be written as (by using Eqs. 7-2 and 7-11):
( )
( )
( )
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\
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\
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=
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\
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6
5
4
3
2
1
12 11
12 11
12 11
11 12 12
12 11 12
12 12 11
6
5
4
3
2
1
2 0 0 0 0 0
0 2 0 0 0 0
0 0 2 0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
o
o
o
o
o
o
c
c
c
c
c
c
S S
S S
S S
S S S
S S S
S S S
(7.18)
The relationship of Eq. 7-18 can be expanded and equated to
Eq. 6-9 to give:











( ) | |
( ) | |
( ) | |
2 1 3 3 11 2 12 1 12 3
3 1 2 3 12 2 11 1 12 2
3 2 1 3 12 2 12 1 11 1
1
1
1
o o v o o o o c
o o v o o o o c
o o v o o o o c
+ = + + =
+ = + + =
+ = + + =
E
S S S
E
S S S
E
S S S
(7.19)
Also,



( )
( )
( ) ,
1
2
,
1
2
,
1
2
6 6 12 11 6
5 5 12 11 5
4 4 12 11 4
o o c
o o c
o o c
G
S S
G
S S
G
S S
= =
= =
= =
(7.19)
Expressing the strains as function of stresses, we have







( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
6 6 12 11 6
5 5 12 11 5
4 4 12 11 4
3 2 1 3 11 2 12 1 12 3
3 2 1 3 12 2 11 1 12 2
3 2 1 3 12 2 12 1 11 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
, 2
, 2
, 2
c c o
c c o
c c o
c c c c c c o
c c c c c c o
c c c c c c o
= =
= =
= =
+ + + = + + =
+ + + = + + =
+ + + = + + =
C C
C C
C C
C C C
C C C
C C C
(7.20)
G = : Note
A great number of materials can be treated as isotropic,
although they are not microscopically so.
Individual grains exhibit the crystalline anisotropy and
symmetry, but when they form a poly-crystalline aggregate
and are randomly oriented, the material is microscopically
isotropic.
If the grains forming the poly-crystalline aggregate have
preferred orientation, the material is microscopically
anisotropic.
Often, material is not completely isotropic; if the
elastic modulus E is different along three perpendicular
directions, the material is Orthotropic; composites are a
typical case.


2
3
2
1
2
3
2
2
2
2
2
1 44 12 11 44
2
3
2
1
2
3
2
2
2
2
2
1 44 12 11 11
)(
2
1
( 4
1
)(
2
1
( 2
1
k i k j j i
ijk
k i k j j i
ijk
l l l l l l S S S S
G
l l l l l l S S S S
E
+ + =
+ + =
(7.21a)
(7.21b)
and are the Youngs and shear modulus, respectively, in
the [ijk] direction; are the direction cosines of the
direction [ijk]
ijk
G
3 2 1
, ,
k j i
l l l
ijk
E
In a cubic material, the elastic moduli can be determined
along any orientation, from the elastic constants, by the
application of the following equations:
Table 7-2 Stiffness and compliance constants for cubic crystals
___________________________________________________
Metal
___________________________________________________
Aluminum 10.82 6.13 2.85 1.57 -0.57 3.15
Copper 16.84 12.14 7.54 1.49 -0.62 1.33
Iron 23.70 14.10 11.60 0.80 -0.28 0.86
Tungsten 50.10 19.80 15.14 0.26 -0.07 0.66
___________________________________________________

Stiffness constants in units of 10
-10
Pa.
Compliance in units of 10
-11
Pa
11
C
12
C
44
C
11
S
12
S
44
S
Using the direction cosines l, m, n (as described in the text book)
the equation for determining the Elastic Moduli along any direction
is given by:
) ](
2
1
) [( 2
1
2 2 2 2 2 2
44 12 11 11
n l n m m l S S S S
E
+ + =
(7.22)
Typical values of elastic constants for cubic metals are given in
Table 7.2.

All the relations described in Eqs. 7-12 to 7-20 for obtaining Elastic
constants are applicable. This include:
E
S
1
11
=
E
v
S =
12
G
S
1
44
=
Example
A hydrostatic compressive stress applied to a material
with cubic symmetry results in a dilation of -10
-5
. The
three independent elastic constants of the material are
C
11
= 50 GPa, C
12
= 40 GPa and C
44
= 32 GPa. Write an
expression for the generalized Hookes law for the
material, and compute the applied hydrostatic stress.


SOLUTION
Dilation is the sum of the principal strain components:
c = c
1
+ c
2
+ c
3
= -10
-5

Cubic symmetry implies that c
1
= c
2
= c
3
= -3.33 x10
-5

and
c
4
= c
5
= c
6
= 0
From Hookes law,
o
i
= C
ij
c
j

and
the applied hydrostatic stress is:
o
p
= o
1
= (50 + 40 + 40)(-3.33) 10
3
Pa
= -130 x 3.33 x 10
3
= -433 kPa
3 12 2 12 1 11 1
c c c o C C C + + =
Example: Determine the modulus of elasticity for tungsten and iron
in the <111> and <100> directions. What conclusions can be drawn
about their elastic anisotropy? From Table 7.1
____________________________

________________
Fe: 0.80 -0.28 0.86
W: 0.26 -0.07 0.66
44
S
12
S
11
S
SOLUTION
The direction cosines for the chief directions in a cubic lattice are:
_______________________________________
Directions
_______________________________________
<100> 1 0 0
<110> 0
<111>
2 / 1
2 / 1
3 / 1 3 / 1
3 / 1
1 i
l
2 j
l
3 k
l
For iron:
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+ + + =
9
1
9
1
9
1
} 2 / 86 . 0 ) 28 . 0 80 . 0 {( 2 80 . 0
1
111
E
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
3
1
30 . 1 80 . 0
3
1
) 43 . 0 08 . 1 ( 2 80 . 0
1
111
E
43 . 0 80 . 0 =
Pa x E
11
111
10 70 . 2
37 . 0
1
= =
80 . 0 ) 0 ( 30 . 1 80 . 0
1
100
= =
E
Pa x E
11
100
10 25 . 1 =
For tungsten:
|
.
|

\
|
)
`

+ =
3
1
2
66 . 0
) 07 . 0 26 . 0 ( 2 26 . 0
1
111
E
{ } 26 . 0
3
1
33 . 0 33 . 0 2 26 . 0
1
111
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
E
GPa Pa x E 385 10 85 . 3
26 . 0
1
11
111
= = =
( ) 26 . 0 0
2
66 . 0
) 07 . 0 26 . 0 ( 2 26 . 0
1
100
=
)
`

+ =
E
Pa x E
11
100
10 85 . 3
26 . 0
1
= =
Therefore, we see that tungsten is elastically isotropic while iron
is elastically anisotropic.