IP Routing Principles

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Router
Application Transport Network Data Link Physical HD IP TCP Data TR Router Application Transport Network Data Link Physical

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IP Routing..
172.16.2.1 120.1.3.9

Ethernet
FDDI

Serial

TOKEN RING

DATA

DATA

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IP Routing
Data link layer provide communications across a physical path Certain information about data link identifiers and encapsulation must be aquired and stored in a database such as ARP cache Network layer provide communications across logical or virtual path Information about network layer is stored in routing table or forwarding table
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IP Routing.
When a framed packet arrives at one of a routers interfaces: At layer-2 (Data Link Layer)
The frame will be accepted by a router only if Data link identifier in destination address contains Identification of the routers interface or a broadcast identifier FCS field is checked for error detection, if any
If FCS is bad, frame is discarded If FCS is good, frame header and trailer are stripped off and IP Datagram is handed over to layer-3
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IP Routing..
At Layer-3 (Network layer) the destination IP address is examined If the destination IP address is:
IP address of a routers interface or an all host broadcast address
The protocol field of the packet is examined and the enclosed data is sent to the appropriate internal process

IP address of a host on a directly connected network

The packet will be delivered after encapsulation
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IP Routing
IP address of a host on a network not directly connected to the router
The packet will be routed after doing a route table lookup

Each route entry must contain two items

The address of the network the router can reach A pointer to the destination
the pointer will indicate the address of another router on a directly connected network or the address of another router which is one hop closer to the destination, known as next hop router

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IP Routing.
Direct Routing
If the datagram is routed locally i.e. if the destination is on the same subnet as the originator.

Indirect Routing
If the use of a forwarding device such as router is invoked i.e. if the destination is remote

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IP Routing..

172.16.2.1

172.16.2.3
E0 E1 172.16.3.1

172.16.3.5

172.16.2.2

172.16.3.100

172.16.2.160

172.16.3.150

Direct Routing

Indirect Routing

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IP Routing
08.00.39.00.2F.C4 172.16.2.1 08.00.39.00.2F.C1 172.16.2.4 E0 E1 172.16.3.2 08.00.39.00.2F.C6

172.16.2.2 08.00.39.00.2F.C2
172.16.2.3

172.16.3.1 08.00.39.00.2F.C5

172.16.3.3 08.00.39.00.2F.C7
172.16.3.4

08.00.39.00.2F.C3
08.00.39.00.2F.C4 08.00.39.00.2F.C1 172.16.2.1

08.00.39.00.2F.C8
172.16.3.4 DATA CRC

Routing Table 172.16.2.0/24 172.16.2.4 172.16.3.0/24 172.16.3.1

08.00.39.00.2F.C8 08.00.39.00.2F.C5 172.16.2.1 172.16.3.4 DATA CRC

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Route Table Updation

Route table aquires information in two ways:
Manually
Static route entries

Automatically
Dynamic routing protocols

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Static Routing
Routes to destinations are set up manually Network reachability is not dependent on the existence and state of the network Route may be up or down but static routes will remain in the routing tables and traffic would still be sent towards the route Not suitable for large networks Also known as Non-adaptive routing

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Dynamic Routing
Routes are learnt via an internal or external routing protocols Routing Protocol is a language a router speaks with other routers to share information about the reachability and status of the network Routing Protocol messages do not carry end user traffic from network to network Routing Protocol uses the routed protocol to pass information between routers RIP & OSPF are routing protocols
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Dynamic Routing
Routing decisions change to reflect the changes in topology Network reachability is dependent on the existence and state of the network If a router is down, its entry will be deleted from the routing table and traffic to that will not be forwarded Also known as Adaptive routing

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Routed Protocol
Contains sufficient network layer addressing information for user traffic to be directed from one network to another network Define the format and use of the fields within a packet Packets that use a routed protocol are conveyed from one end system to another end system through an inter network Internet Protocol is a routed protocol
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Router Table Lookup

The router will match the most specific address it can in the descending order of specificity as below:
A A A A A A host address subnet group of subnets major network number group of major network numbers default route

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Default Route..
When a router receives a packet and its table does not contain the network address indicated in the packet, it is forwarded to default router The default router, too, may have a default router Easiest form of routing for a domain connected to a single exit point Default router is indicated as 0.0.0.0 with no subnet mask
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Default Route
If there is no route or default route at any stage, the router will send a control message (through ICMP) to the originating station Refers to last resort outlet

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Static and Default Routes

192.168.5.0 WAN R1 R2

Traffic to network 192.168.5.0 (Static Route). All outgoing traffic from network 192.168.5.0 (Default Route).
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Dynamic Routing Protocols

All dynamic routing protocols are built around an algorithm, which must specify:
A procedure for passing network reachability information about networks to other routers A procedure for receiving reachability information from other routers A procedure for determining optimal routes based on the reachability information it has and for recording this information in a route table A procedure for reacting to and advertising topology changes in an network
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Convergence
10.1.1.0
.2

10.1.2.0 .1 .2

10.1.3.0
.1 .2

10.1.4.0 .1

Routing Table-A
NW 10.1.1.0 10.1.2.0 VIA HOP ---------0 ---------0 1 2

Routing Table-B
NW 10.1.2.0 10.1.3.0 VIA HOP ---------0 ---------0 1 1

Routing Table-C
NW 10.1.3.0 10.1.4.0 VIA HOP ---------0 ---------0 1 2

10.1.3.0 10.1.2.2 10.1.4.0 10.1.2.2

10.1.1.0 10.1.2.1 10.1.4.0 10.1.3.2

10.1.2.0 10.1.3.1 10.1.1.0 10.1.3.1

All the routing tables contains information about all.

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Convergence
The process of bringing all route tables to a state of consistency is called convergence. The time it takes to share information across an internetwork and for all routers to calculate best paths is convergence time.

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Path Determination
Routing Table of Router-A Network Next Hop Router

192.168.1.0 192.168.2.0 192.168.3.0 192.168.4.0 192.168.5.0 192.168.6.0 192.168.7.0

Direct Direct Direct B,C B,C B,C B,C

192.168.2.0

B 192.168.1.0
C

192.168.7.0

192.168.3.0 192.168.4.0

192.168.6.0 192.168.5.0

Networks192.168.4.0 to 192.168.7.0 can be reached via either router B or C, which path is preferable? Metrics are needed to rank the alternatives.
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Metrics
A metric is a variable assigned to routes as a means of ranking them. Different routing protocols use different, and sometimes multiple metrics.
RIP defines the best route as one with minimum number of hops. IGRP defines the best route on a combination of lowest bandwidth along the route and the total delay of the route.

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Metrics
Hop Count Bandwidth Load Delay Reliability

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Metrics
Hop Count
A hop count metric simply count router hops. From router-A it is 1 hop to network 192.168.5.0 if packets are sent out interface 192.168.3.0 and 2 hops if sent out 192.168.1.0
192.168.2.0

192.168.1.0 B

192.168.7.0

192.168.3.0 192.168.4.0

192.168.6.0 192.168.5.0

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Metrics
Bandwidth
A bandwidth metric would choose a higher bandwidth over a lower bandwidth. A packet from router A to C will follow path A-B-C.
192.168.2.0 A B 192.168.1.0 192.168.7.0 A-C: 64kbps A-B: 2mbps B-C: 2mbps

192.168.3.0 192.168.4.0

192.168.6.0 192.168.5.0

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Metrics
Speed
>= 100Mbps Ethernet/802.3 E1(2.048Mbps)

Cost
1 10 48

64Kbps

1562

Metric=108/Interface Speed in bits per sec. e.g. 100000000/2048000=48.828125

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Metrics
Load
The metric reflects the amount of traffic utilising the links along the path. The best path is the one with the lowest load. Unlike hop count and bandwidth, the load on a route changes and therefore the metric will change and is called route flapping. Route flaps have adverse effects on routers CPU and the overall stability of the network.

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Metrics
Delay
Delay is the measure of time a packet takes to traverse a route A protocol using delay as a metric would choose the path with the least delay as the best path

Reliability
Reliability measures the likelihood that the link will fail in some way The path with highest reliability would be selected as the best
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Metrics
Cost
The term cost is often used as a generic term when speaking of router choices
RIP chooses the lowest-cost path based on the hop count.

Another generic term is Shortest

RIP chooses the shortest path based on the hop count.

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Dynamic Routing Protocols

Distance Vector Routing Protocols
Distance vector algorithms are based on the work done of R.E.Bellman, L.R.Ford and D.R.Fulkerson Often known as Bellman-ford or Ford-fulkerson algorithms

Link State Advertisement Protocols

Built around a well known algorithm from graph theory, E.W.Dijkstras shortest path algorithm Called as Shortest path first or Distributive database protocols
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Distance Vector Routing Protocols

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Distance Vector Routing Protocols

Routes are advertised <Distance, Direction> as vectors of
Distance is defined in terms of a metric Direction is defined in terms of next hop router

Each router learns routes from its neighboring routers perspective and then advertises the routes from its own perspective Sometimes referred to as Routing By Rumor
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Distance Vector Routing Protocols

Routing Information Protocol (RIP) for IP. Xerox Networking Systems XNS RIP. Novells IPX RIP. Ciscos Internet Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP). DECs DNA Phase IV. Apple Talks Routing Maintenance Protocol (RTMP).

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Routing Loops
Routing are loops

A condition in which a packet is continuously transmitted within a series of routers without ever reaching its destination.

Routing Loops
Routing loops may be caused by:
Incorrectly configured static routes Incorrectly configured route redistribution Slow convergence Incorrectly configured discard routes Routing loops can create the following issues: Excess use of bandwidth CPU resources may be strained Network convergence is degraded Routing updates may be lost or not processed in a timely manner

Routing Loops
Count to Infinity
This is a routing loop whereby packets bounce infinitely around a network

Routing Loops
Setting a maximum Distance Vector routing protocols set a specified metric value to indicate infinity
Once a router counts to infinity it marks the route as unreachable

Routing Loops
Preventing loops with holddown timers
Holddown timers allow a router to not accept any changes to a route for a specified period of time Point of using holddown timers

Allows routing updates to propagate through network with the most current information

Routing Loops
The Split Horizon Rule is used to prevent routing loops Split Horizon rule:
A router should not advertise a network through the interface from which the update came

Routing Loops
Split with reverse horizon poison

The rule states that once a router learns of an unreachable route through an interface, advertise it as unreachable back through the same interface

Summary
D.V. routing protocols maintains routing tables by

RIP sending out periodic updates RIP using 4 different timers to ensure information is accurate and convergence is achieved in a timely manner EIGRP sending out triggered updates
D.V. routing protocols may be prone to routing loops

routing loops are a condition in which packets continuously traverse a network Mechanisms used to minimize routing loops include defining maximum hop count, holddown timers, split horizon, route poisoning and triggered updates

Summary
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
A distance vector protocol that has 2 versions
RIPv1 - a classful routing protocol RIPv2 - a classless routing protocol

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)

A distance vector routing protocols that has some features of link state routing protocols A Cisco proprietary routing protocol

Link state Routing Protocols

Each router originates information about itself, its directly connected links and state of those links The information is passed around from router to router, each router making a copy of it, but never changing it Every router has identical information about the internetwork Each router will independently calculate its own best paths
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Link state Routing Protocols

Link State Routing protocols are built around well known algorithm from graph theory E.W.Dijkstra shortest path algorithm. Examples of LSR are:
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) The ISOs Intermediate System to Intermediate System (IS-IS) for IP DECs DNA Phase V Novells Netware Link State Protocol (NLSP)

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Link-State Routing Protocols

Advantages Protocol
Routing protocol

of

Link-State

Routing
Use of LSP

Builds Router can Topologica independentl Convergenc l y determine e map the shortest path to every network. No No Slow

A periodic/ event driven routing updates

Distance vector Link State

Generally No

No

Yes

Yes

Fast

Generally Yes

Yes

Link-State Routing Protocols

Requirements for using a link state routing protocol Memory requirements Typically link state routing protocols use more memory Processing Requirements More CPU processing is required of link state routing protocols Bandwidth Requirements Initial startup of link state routing protocols can consume lots of

Link-State Routing Protocols

2 link state routing protocols used for routing IP -Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) -Intermediate System-Intermediate System (IS-IS)

Summary
Link State Routing protocols are also known as Shortest Path First protocols Summarizing the link state process -Routers 1ST learn of directly connected networks -Routers then say hello to neighbors -Routers then build link state packets -Routers then flood LSPs to all neighbors -Routers use LSP database to build a network topology map & calculate the best path to each destination

Link An interface on the router Link State Information about an interface such as -IP address -Subnet mask -Type of network -Cost associated with link -Neighboring routers on the link

Summary

Summary
Link State Packets After initial flooding, additional LSP are sent out when a change in topology occurs

Examples of link state routing protocols -Open shortest path first -IS-IS

Autonomous System
Old definition
An autonomous system is a group of routers under a common administrative domain running a common routing protocol

Contemporary definition
An autonomous system is an internetwork under a common administration

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Interior-Exterior Gateway Protocols

Interior Gateway Protocols
Routing Protocols which run within Autonomous System are IGPs IGPs discover paths between networks an

Exterior Gateway Protocols

Routing Protocols that route between Autonomous System are EGPs EGPs discover paths between autonomous systems

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IGPs-EGPs
AS-0

BGP
AS-1

IGP

BGP
AS-2

BGP

IGP

IGP

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Administrative Distances
Metrics are assigned to the routes to determine the most preferred route.
RIPs metric is hop count IGRP uses bandwidth and delay OSPF uses cost EIGRP uses composite metric

Diversity of metrics poses problems in routers running more than one routing protocol.
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Administrative Distances
Router may learn a route to the same destination from each of the protocols Which route should be selected? The answer to the problem is administrative distance Administrative distances are the route sources to determine most preferred source Administrative distance is a measure of believability
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Administrative Distances
The administrative distance protocols is as below:
Connected Interface Static Route EIGRP summary route External BGP EIGRP IGRP -0 -1 -5 - 20 - 90 - 100

of

various

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Administrative Distances
OSPF IS-IS RIP EGP External EIGRP Internal BGP Unknown - 110 - 115 - 120 - 140 - 170 - 200 - 255

The lower the administrative distance, the more believable the protocol.
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Flow Chart of a Packet

Packet Received NO Header & Checksum Valid YES Decrement TTL; TTL>=0 NO Send ICMP error message Discard original Packet NO Route Found YES Build new packet with MAC address and route through port found in routing table Received ARP reply, insert MAC and IP address into ARP table MAC Address Found NO Send ARP request and wait for a response NO If route available, search MAC in ARP cache Received ARP Reply YES

YES
Route table lookup on Dest. Add.

YES

NO

Default route available YES

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