Digital And Data Communication

M.TECH.-DC(ECE)
Compiled By: Avnish Bora
Department of ECE ,FE&T JNU, Jodhpur
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Signal Space Representation
Constellation Diagram
Orthogonalization
Gram Schmidt Orthogonalization
a configuration of stars as seen
from the earth
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GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF SIGNALS
We are used to seeing signals expressed either
in time or frequency domain
There is another representation space that
portrays signals in more intuitive format
we develop the idea of signals as
multidimensional vectors
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Expressing signals as a weighted sum
Suppose a signal set consists of M signals
s
i
(t),I=1,,M. Each signal can be represented
by a linear sum of basis functions
s
i
t ( ) = s
ij
|
j
t ( )
j =1
N

i =1,..., M
0 s t s T
1999 BG Mobasseri 34
Conditions on basis functions
For the expansion to hold, basis functions
must be orthonormal to each other
Mathematically:

Geometrically:
|
i
t ( )|
j
t ( )
}
dt =
0 i = j
1 i = j



|
i
|
j
|
k
1999 BG Mobasseri 35
Components of the signal vector
Each signal needs N numbers to be
represented by a vector. These N numbers are
given by projecting each signal onto the
individual basis functions:



s
ij
means projection of s
i
(t)on |
j
(t)
s
ij
= s
i
(t)|
j
t ( )
0
T
}
dt
s
ij

|
j

1999 BG Mobasseri 36
Signal space dimension
How many basis functions does it take to
express a signal? It depends on the
dimensionality of the signal
Some need just 1 some need an infinite
number.
The number of dimensions is N and is always
less than the number of signals in the set
N<=M
1999 BG Mobasseri 37
Example: Fourier series
Remember Fouirer series? A signal was
expanded as a linear sum of sines and cosines
of different frequencies. Sounds familiar?
Sines and cosines are the basis functions and
are in fact orthogonal to each other
cos 2tnf
o
t ( )
T
o
}
cos 2tmf
o
t ( )dt = 0, m = n
f
o
=1/ T
o
1999 BG Mobasseri 38
Example: four signal set
A communication system sends one of 4
possible signals. Expand each signal in terms
of two given basis functions
1 1
1 1 2
1
-0.5
2
1
1999 BG Mobasseri 39
Components of s
1
(t)
This is a 2-Dsignal space. Therefore, each
signal can be represented by a pair of
numbers. Lets find them
For s
1
(t)
s
11
= s
1
(t)|
1
t ( )
0
2
}
dt = 1 ( ) 1 ( )
0
1
}
dt + 0 =1
s
12
= s
1
(t)|
2
t ( )
0
2
}
dt = 0 + 0.5 ( ) 1 ( )
0
1
}
dt = 0.5
t
t
1 2
1
1
-0.5
s
1
(t)
|
1

s=(1,-0.5)
1999 BG Mobasseri 40
Interpretation
s
1
(t) is now condensed into just two numbers.
We can reconstruct s
1
(t) like this
s
1
(t)=(1)|
1
(t)+(-0.5)|
2
(t)
Another way of looking at it is this
1
-0.5
|
1

|
2

1999 BG Mobasseri 41
Signal constellation
Finding individual components of each signal
along the two dimensions gets us the
constellation
s4
s1
s2
s3
|
1

|
2

-0.5
-0.5 0.5
1999 BG Mobasseri 42
Finding the energy from the
constellation
This is a simple matter. Remember,


Replace the signal by its expansion
E
i
= s
i
2
(t)dt
0
T
}
E
i
= s
ij
|
j
(t)
j =1
N

(

(
0
T
}
s
ik
|
k
(t)
k =1
N

(

(
dt
1999 BG Mobasseri 43
Exploiting the orthogonality of basis
functions
Expanding the summation, all cross product
terms integrate to zero. What remains are N
terms where j=k
E
i
= s
ij
2
|
j
2
t ( )
j =1
N

(

(
0
T
}
dt = s
ij
2
|
j
2
t ( )dt
0
T
}



(

(
j=1
N

s
ij
2
|
j
2
t ( )dt
0
T
}
=1
j =1
N

= s
ij
2
j =1
N

1999 BG Mobasseri 44
Energy in simple language
What we just saw says that the energy of a
signal is simply the square of the length of its
corresponding constellation vector
3
2
E=9+4=13
E
1999 BG Mobasseri 45
Correlation of two signals
A very desirable situation in is to have signals
that are mutually orthogonal. How do we test
this? Find the angle between them
u
s1
s2
cos u
12
( ) =
s
1
T
s
2
s
1
s
2
transpose
1999 BG Mobasseri 46
Find the angle between s
1
and s
2

Given that s
1
=(1,2)
T
and s
2
=(2,1)
T
, what is the
angle between the two?
s
1
T
s
2
= 1 2
| |
2
1



(

(
= 2 + 2 = 4
s
1
= 1+ 4 = 5
s
2
= 4 +1 = 5
cos u
12
( ) =
4
5 5
=
4
5
u
12
= 36.9
o
1999 BG Mobasseri 47
Distance between two signals
The closer signals are together the more
chances of detection error. Here is how we
can find their separation
d
12
2
= s
1
s
2
2
= s
1j
s
2 j
( )
2
j =1
N

= (1)
2
+ (1)
2
= 2
d
12
= 2
1 2
1
2
1999 BG Mobasseri 48
Constellation building using correlator
banks
We can decompose the signal into its
components as follows
s(t)
|
1

|
2

|
N

dt
0
T
}
dt
0
T
}
dt
0
T
}
s
1

s
2

s
N

N components
1999 BG Mobasseri 49
Detection in the constellation space
Received signal is put through the filter bank
below and mapped to a point
s(t)
|
1

|
2

|
N

dt
0
T
}
dt
0
T
}
dt
0
T
}
s
1

s
2

s
N

components
mapped to a single point

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s
i
t ( ) = s
ij
|
j
t ( )
j =1
N

i =1,..., M
0 s t s T
Suppose a signal set consists of M signals s
i
(t),I=1,,M. Each signal can be
represented by a linear sum of basis functions
Conditions on basis functions
For the expansion to hold, basis functions must be orthonormal to each other
Mathematically:

|
i
t ( )|
j
t ( )
}
dt =
0 i = j
1 i = j



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Components of the signal vector
Each signal needs N numbers to be
represented by a vector. These N numbers are
given by projecting each signal onto the
individual basis functions:



s
ij
means projection of s
i
(t)on |
j
(t)
s
i

s
ij

|
j

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