Comparative

Anatomy
Bone
Source:
Kardong
Chapters 7, 8, & 9

Organization of Skeletal
Tissues
Figure 9.1.

Bone Legacy

Exoskeleton or dermal skeleton

Dermal bony armor of ostracoderms
Bony scales in ancient fish

Cranial dermal armor arose from

neural crest cells

Endoskeleton
Internal to skin
Where once exoskeleton

Ex: clavical, nasal, frontal, and parietal bone

Other endoskeletal elements were

never part of the dermal skeleton

Ex: scapula, vertebrae, ribs, sternum, brain case,

and extremity bones

Bone Evidence

All bone develops from mesenchyme

Neural crest cells
Membrane bone- arises from
mesenchyme without passing through
cartilaginous intermediate

exoskeleton

Replacement bone- arises from existing

cartilage

endoskeleton

Endoskeletal Tissues

Visceral Skeleton

Jaw cartilages and ear ossicles

Weberian ossicles of fish (ear ossicles)

Derived from transverse processes of

anterior most vertebrae

Somatic Skeleton
Remaining internal bones developing from
mesoderm proper
Somite and scleratome

Axial Skeleton
Appendicular Skeleton

Vertebrae Development

Arise from sclerotome cells of somites

Morphogenesis

Sclerotome divides into posterior and anterior

halves

Halves join with segments of adjacent

sclerotomes

Centrum formed from junction

Vertebrae are intersegmental

Myotome doesnt move

Posterior segment forms costal process

Site of rib attachment

Vertebrae Development
(contd.)

Figure 9.2. (a) sclerotome divides

(b) halves join with adjacent
halves of next sclerotome (c)
junction forms centrum (see book
figure 8.12)

Figure 9.3. Developing vertebral

column showing intersegmental
position
(see book figure 8.12).

Axial Skeleton Vertebrae

Cartilaginous or bony
From occipital region to tail
Vertebrae types based on centrum structure

Centrum is common feature in all vertebrae

Centrum Structure
Acelous- flat anterior and posterior surface

Mammals

Amphicelous- concavities of anterior and

posterior surfaces

Fish, primitive salamanders

Procelous- concanvity on anterior surface

Most reptiles

Opisthocelous- concavity of posterior

surface

Most salamanders

Heterocelous- saddle-shaped

Neck of birds and turtles

Figure 9.4. Vertebral types based on articular

surface of centra (book figure 8.4).

Vertebrae Evolution
Transition from
crossopterygians to
labyrinthodonts
Different types of vertebrae
came from primitive,
rachitomous labyrinthodont
vertebrae

Two pleurocentra and U-shaped

hypocentrum
Hypocentrum is lost and
pleurocentrem enlarges and
gives rise to centrum of
modern amniote

Figure 9.5. Modifications

from labyrinthodont to
modern amniote vertebrae.
Hypocentrum is diagonal
lines. Pleurocentrum is red

Vertebrae Grouping
Grouped according to body
region
Amphibians

First to possess a cervical

vertebrae

Figure 9.6.
Single cervical
vertebrae of
anuran (book
figure 8.13).

Figure 9.7.
Regions of
vertebral
column.

Reptile Vertebrae

Atlas as 1st and axis

as 2nd cervicals
Turtle: 8 cervicals, 2
sacrals, 10 dorsals,
16-30 caudals
Alligator: 8
cervicals, 11
thoracic, 5 lumbar,
2 sacrals, up to 40
caudals

Figure 9.8. atlas and axis cervical ve

Figure 9.9. Dorsal view of sacral

vertebrae of vertebrates.

Bird Vertebrae

Possess atlas and axis

13-14 free cervicals, 4 fused
thoracics, fused synsacrum, free
caudals, pygostyle

Figure 9.10. Pigeon vertebral column (see book figure 8.31)

Synsacrum
Fuses with pelvic
bone
Reduction in bone
mass

Figure 9.11. Pigeon skeleton:

trunk, tail, and pectoral girdle.

Figure 9.12. Synsacrum and

pelvic girdle left lateral (a)
and ventral (b) views (book
figure 8.31).

Mammal Vertebrae

Most species have 7 cervicals

12 thoracic and 5 lumbar compose
dorsal vertebrae
ancestral mammals possessed ~ 27
presacrals
sacrum 2-5 fused vertebrae (ankylosed)
caudals are variable

primates have 2-5 fused into coccyx

Ribs

Dogfish- develop dorsal ribs

Most teleost- develop ventral ribs
Tetrapods- have dorsal and ventral ribs

Current theory is that the tetrapod rib is

homologous to the dorsal rib of fishes

Primitive tetrapods have bicipital ribs - 2

portions articulate with vertebrae

Tuberculum- dorsal head

Capitulum- ventral head

Figure 9.13. Dorsal and ventral

ribs
(book figure 8.6 and 8.7).

Agnathans- no ribs
Amphibians- ribs
never reach
sternum
Birds- flat
Figure 9.14.
processes
extending off ribs
posteriorly (unicate
processes)

Unicate processes of bird (see bo

figure 8.8).

Figure 9.15. Vertebrae and ribs of

alligator (book figure 8.2).

Sternum

Strictly a tetrapod structure

Amphibians- poorly formed
Reptiles - cartilaginous plates

Snakes, legless lizards, turtles have no

sternum
Alligator- extends down belly

Ribs fused it sternum

Gastralia

Figure 9.16. Ribs and gastralia of alligator (boo

8.2).

Birds- unusual, keeled sternum

in carinates
Mammals- well developed
sternum

Rod shaped
Segments: manubrium,
sternebrae, xiphisternum and
xiphoid process

Figure 9.17. Keeled sternum of

bird
(book figure 8.8).

Figure 9.18. Tetrapod sterna

(book figure 8.8).

Heterotopic Bone

Develop by endochondral or
intramembranous ossification
In areas subject to continual stress
Ex: Os cordis, rostral bone, os penis, os
clitoridis

Os cordis- interventricular septum

in deer heart
Rostral bone- snout of pig
Os penis (baculum)- embedded in
penis of lower primates
Os clitoridis- embedded in clitoris
of otters
Others include falciform, sesamoid,
patella, pisiform

Figure 9.19. Heterotopic

bones.

Skull and Visceral Skeleton

Two functionally independent cartilaginous components

derived from replacement bone
1. Neurocranium
(= chondrocranium)
2. Splanchnocranium

Figure 9.20. Dog skull.

Sources of
the various bones are
outlined:
dermatocranium (pink),
neurocranium (=
chondrocranium)(blue); splanchnocranium
(yellow)

Neural Crest Contributions to the

Figure 9.21.

Neurocranium

Protects brain and anterior part of spinal cord

Sense organ capsules
Cartilaginous brain case is embryonic adaptation
Four ossification centers

Figure 9.22. Development of cartilaginous

neurocranium (book figure 7.3).

Neurocranium Ossification
Centers

Occipital region
Sphenoid region
Ethmoid region
Otic region

Figure 9.23. Neurocranium of

human skull.

Occipital Region
Basioccipital, 2 exoccipitals,
suproccipital
Forms single occipital bone in
mammals

Sphenoid Region
Basisphenoid, orbitosphenoid,
presphenoid, laterosphenoid
Fuse to form one sphenoid
bone in mammals

Figure 9.24. Sphenoid bone.

Figure 9.25. Human skull (a)

cribriform plate (b) frontal bone
(c) temporal bone (d) ethmoid
bone (e) sphenoid bone (f)
foramen magnum.

Figure 9.26. Sphenoid bone.

Ethmoid Region
Anterior to sphenoid
Cribriform plate, olfactory foramina,
terminals, mesamoid
Fuse to form ethmoid in mammals

Otic Region

Three bones in tetrapods

Prootic
Opisthotic
Epiotic

Unite to form petrosal bone in birds and

mammals

Forms temporal in mammals

Figure 9.27. Temporal bone of

human skull (book figure 9.28).

Figure 9.28. Multiple nature of

temporal bone of mammals (see
book figure 7.53).

Figure 9.29. Intramembranous

ossification of human skull. Embryonic,
cartilaginous neurocranium is black.
Neurocranial bones are red. Other is
dermal mesenchyme.

Splanchnocranium

Visceral cranium,
although a misnomer.
- Visceral arches
- Branchial region

Figure 9.31. Splanchnocranium of

human. Skeletal derivatives of 2nd
through 5th pharyngeal arches (see
Figure 9.30. Primitive splanchnocranium.
book Table 7.2).

1st visceral arch- mandibular

Meckels cartilage malleus
Palatoquadrate (quadrate)
incus
2nd visceral arch- hyoid
hyomandibula columella
(stapes)
ceratohyal styloid process and
anterior horn of hyoid
basihyal body of hyoid

Figure 9.32. Caudal end of

Meckels cartilage and
developing middle ear
cavity.

Visceral-Cranial Derivatives

Alisphenoid- part of
sphenoid
Malleus, incus- 1st arch
Stapes- 2nd arch
Styloid- 2nd arch
Hyoid- mainly basihyal

Figure 9.33. Derivatives of the

human visceral skeleton (red).

Figure 9.34. Skeletal derivatives of pharyngeal arches (book Table

Dermatocranium

Membrane bone, not replacement bone

Dermal bones of skull
Upper jaw and face, palates, mandible

Figure 9.35. Pattern that tetrapod dermatocrania

(see book figure 7.10).

Dermatocranium (cont)

Figure 9.36. Dog skull showing

dermatocranium (pink),
chondrocranium (blue), and
splanchnocranium (yellow).

Figure 9.37. Endochondral bones

(red) of mammalian skull.

Dermatocranial Elements

Nasal
Squamosal
Secondary palate- maxillary, jugal
Primary palate- palatine, dentary

Figure 9.38. Lizard skull.

Evolution of Mammalian Middle

Ear Bones

Figure 9.39. (book figure 7.55).

Phylogeny of the
Splanchnocranium

Figure 9.40. (book figure 7.66).

Appendicular Skeleton

Pectoral Girdle
Pelvic Girdle
Appendages
Adaptations for Speed

Pectoral Girdle

2 sets of elements: cartilage or

replacement bone/membrane bone

Replacement bones
Coracoid, scapula, suprascapula
Membrane bones
Clavicle, cleithrum,
supracleithrum

Figure 9.41. Pectoral girdle along

phylogenetic lines.
Dermal bones are red. Replacement
bones are black.

Reduction in number
of bones through
evolution

Shark- only cartilagenous

components
Alligator- retains only
replacement bone
elements, no dermal bone
Mammals
Scapula of replacement
bone
Clavicle of membrane
bone
Birds- two clavicles form
furcula (wishbone)

(a)

(b)
Figure 9.42. Pectoral girdles of (a)
Polypterus and (b) shark.. Dermal
bones are red. Replacement bones are

Fish Tetrapod Transition

Figure 9.43. (book figure 9.16).

Summary of Pectoral
Girdle Evolution

Figure 9.44. (book figure 9.19).

Pelvic Girdle

No dermal elements
Three replacement
bones

Ilium, ischium, pubis

Triradiate pelvic
girdle- alligator and
dinosaur

Figure 9.45. Left halves of pelvic girdles sh

parallel evolution.

Summary of Pelvic Girdle

Evolution

Figure 9.46. (book

figure 9.21).

Appendages

Single unit most medial in both fore and

hind limbs
Two units in distal region of fore and hind
limb

Figure 9.47. Dorsal view of left forelimb or forefin of Devonian tetrapod

Figure 9.49. Basic organization of foreFigure 9.48. Cladogram of lobe-Fin fishes

hindlimb (book figure 9.23).
and amphibians.

Small set of bones at wrist and

ankle
Pentameristic pattern of
phalanges
Reduction in number and
position of phalanges

Figure 9.50. Evolution of fins to limbs.

Figure 9.51. Adaptations in

secondarily aquatic tetrapods.
(book figure 9.30)

Adaptations for Speed

Plantigrade
Flat on the ground
Primates

Digitigrade
Elevated
Carnivores

Unguligrade
Reduction in digits
Figure 9.52. Plantigrade, digitigrade, and
Two types
unguligrade feet. Ankle bones are black.

Metatarsals are gray.

Unguligrade Adaptations
Reduction in digits

Perissodactyl

Odd toed
Mesaxanic foot
- Weight on enlarged
middle digit

Ex: horse

Artidodactyl

Even toed
Paraxonic foot
- Weight equally
distributed on 3rd and 4th
digits

Ex: camel

Figure 9.53. Unguligrade

adaptations in horse and camel.
Bones lost are white (see book
figure 9.39).

Skeletal Adaptations for Digg

Figure 9.54. (book figure 9.58).

Locomotion Without Limbs

Serpentine
Lateral undulation
Wave motion
Minimum 3 contact
points

(a)

Rectilinear
Straight line
(b)
Scutes on belly lift
Costocutaneous
muscles move the skin (c)

Figure 9.55. Serpentine locomotion (a)

and rectilinear locomotion (b & c)

Locomotion Without Limbs

(contd.)

Sidewinding
Minimum 2 contact points
Adaptation in sandy
habitats

Concertina
Minimum 2 contact points
Allows snake to move up
(a)
gutter

(b)

Figure 9.56. Sidewinding

locomotion (a) and concertina
locomotion (b)

Brachiation: Human Limb

Engineering
Figure 9.57. (book page 354).