D A M S

DAMS
Contents

Dams
Types of dam
Selection of dam site
Selection of dam type
Determination of dam height
Instrumentation
Inspection of dam
Components of earth dam
Design criteria for earth dam

Components of a water
power scheme
Essentials of general plant
layout
General types of plant layout
Surge chambers
Governing of an impulse
turbine

DAMS
DAM
Dam is constructed to create a reservoir (permanent or
temporary)
Purpose of dams:

To divert water from a stream (Diversion dams)

For navigation (Navigation dams)
For hydropower generation (Power dams)
Store water for municipal/industrial use, irrigation, flood control,
river regulation, recreation, (Storage dams)

A dam serving two or more purposes is a multipurpose dam.

The dam should be economical and the material used for construction
should be easily available.
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DAMS
Dams are classified based on their purpose, shape, material used
and mode of construction

TYPES OF DAM
Embankment Dams
Concrete Dams
Composite Dams

DAMS
Embankment Dams
Earth fill Dams
Rock fill Dams

Types of Earth fill Dams

Homogeneous earth fill

Modified Homogeneous
Zoned earth fill
Hydraulic fill Dams
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DAMS

Homogeneous

Modified Homogeneous

Zoned

Types of Earth fill Dams

DAMS
Types of Rock fill Dams

Central core
Sloping core
Diaphram
Sloping Core

Diaphragm
Central Core

DAMS
Types of Concrete Dams

Concrete Arch Dam

Concrete Buttress Dam
Concrete Gravity Dam

Concrete gravity dam

Concrete arch dam

Concrete buttress dam

DAMS
COMPOSITE DAM
This dam is a combination of embankment and concrete dam.
It generally consists of concrete gravity or buttress sections in
combination with earth fill or rock fill sections.
The concrete dam portion helps to pass flood flows over or through
the section during construction, and act as the spillway after
construction. The earth or rock fill section take advantage of low
cost construction and local materials.

EARTH DAMS
Earth dams have been used for water storage since early
civilization.
Earth dams may be built of rock, gravel, sand, silt or clay in various
combinations.

DAMS

Earth dams are constructed with an inner impervious core with

upstream and downstream zones or more pervious materials,
sometime including rock zones.
Earth dams limit the flow of water by the use of fine-grained
soils. Where possible, these soils are formed into a relatively
impervious core.
In sand or gravel foundation, the core may by connected to
bedrock by a cutoff trench backfilled with compacted soil.
If such cutoffs are uneconomical because of the great depth of
pervious foundation, then the central impervious core is
connected to a long horizontal upstream impervious blanket that
increases the seepage path. The impervious core is encased in
pervious zones of sand, gravel, or rock fill for stability.
Transition zones prevent the core material from being
transported into the pervious zones by seeping water.
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DAMS

When pervious soils are scarce, the entire dam may be a

homogeneous fill of relatively impervious soil.
Downstream pervious drainage blankets are provided to collect
seepage passing through, under, and around the abutments of
the dam.
Materials can be obtained from excavation for the dam and from
borrow area. Rock fill is generally used when large quantities
are available or when soil borrow is scarce.
Earth fill embankment is placed in layers and compacted by
sheep-foot rollers or heavy pneumatic-tire rollers.
Moisture content of silt and clay soils is carefully controlled to
facilitate optimum compaction.
Sand and gravel fills are compacted in slightly thicker layers.
Rock fill is placed in layers 1-3 ft deep.
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DAMS
SELECTION OF DAM SITE
This depends upon hydrologic, topographic, and geologic
conditions; storage capacity of reservoir; accessibility; cost of lands
and necessary relocations of prior occupants or uses; and proximity
of sources of suitable construction materials.
For a storage dam the site should have the desired amount of
storage to be economically developed. Power dams must be
located to develop the desired head and storage.
For a diversion dam the site must be in conjunction with the location
and elevation of the outlet canal or conduit.
Site for navigation dams involves factors such as desired navigable
depth, channel width, slope of river channel, natural river flow,
amount of bank protection, amount of channel dredging, approach
and exit conditions for tows, and locations of other dams.

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DAMS
SELECTION OF DAM SITE

Unless other conditions are satisfactory, hydrological features

may need to be subordinated.
Topographic characteristics include width of the flood plain,
shape and height of valley walls, existence of nearby saddles
for spillways, and adequacy of reservoir rim to retain impounded
water.
Geologic conditions include the depth, classification,
engineering properties of soils and bedrock, occurrence of
sinks, faults, and major landslides at the site or in the reservoir
area.
The elevation of ground water table influence the construction
operations and suitability of borrow materials.
The reservoir water recharges the ground water and have
adverse effects on mineral resources.
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DAMS
SELECTION OF DAM TYPE

It depends on the estimated costs of various types.

Important factors are topography, foundation conditions and
the accessibility of construction materials.
A hard-rock foundation is suitable for any type of dam,
provided the rock has no unfavorable joints, no movement in
existing faults, and seepage is controlled at reasonable cost.
Rock foundations of high quality are essential for arch dam
because the abutments receive the full thrust of the water.
Rock foundations are necessary for all concrete dams.
An earth dam may be built on almost any kind of foundation if
properly designed and constructed.
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DAMS
SELECTION OF DAM TYPE

An embankment dam is most economical if large spillway and

outlet capacities are required and topography and foundation
are favorable.
In a wide valley a combination of an earth embankment dam
and a concrete section containing the spillway and outlets is
economical.
A concrete dam requires adequate quantities of suitable
aggregate and availability of cement, while an earth dam
requires sufficient quantities of both pervious and impervious
earth materials.
If enough rock is available, a rock-fill dam with an impervious
earth core may be the most economical.
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DAMS
DETERMINATION OF DAM HEIGHT

1
2
3

The dam must be high enough to

Store water to the normal full pool elevation
Provide for the temporary storage needed to route the spillway
design flood through the dam
Provide sufficient freeboard to assure an acceptable degree of
safety against possible overtopping from waves and run up.
Physical characteristics of the dam and reservoir site or existing
development within the reservoir area may impose upper limits in
selecting the normal full-pool level.
Freeboard is the distance between the maximum reservoir level and the
top of the dam. Usually 3ft or more of freeboard is provided to avoid
overtopping by wind generated waves. Additional freeboard may be
provided for possible effects of surges induced by earthquakes,
landslides etc,.

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DAMS
INSTRUMENTATION

Instruments are installed at dams to observe structural

behavior and physical conditions to check safety, and for
design improvement.
In concrete dams instruments are used to measure stresses.
Plumb lines are used to measure bending, and clinometers to
measure tilting.
Contraction joint openings are measured by joint meters.
Temperatures are measured either by embedded electrical
resistance thermometers or by adopting strain, stress, and
joint measuring instruments.
Water pressure on the base of a concrete dam is measured by
uplift pressure cells.
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DAMS

Measurements are made to determine horizontal/vertical

movements; strong-motion accelerometers are installed on
and near dams in earth-quake regions to record seismic data.
Piezometers determine pore water pressure in the soil or
bedrock during construction and seepage after reservoir
impoundments.
Settle mental gages determine settlements of the foundation
of the dam under dead load.
Vertical and horizontal makers determine movements,
especially during construction.
Inclinometers determine horizontal movements along a vertical
line.

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DAMS
INSPECTION OF DAM:

Failure of dam may result in loss of life or property in the

downstream area.

The design of dams should be reviewed to assure

competency of the structure and its site, and inspection should
be made during construction to ensure that the requirements
of the design and specification are incorporated in the
structure.

After completion and filling, inspections should be regularly

scheduled. The objective is to detect symptoms of possible
distress in the dam at earliest time.
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DAMS
INSPECTION OF DAM

These symptoms include slough or slides in

embankments; piping or boils; abnormal changes in flow;
increase in seepage quantities; changes in pore water or
uplift
pressures;
movement
or
cracking
of
embankments/abutments; cracking of concrete structures;
appearance of sinkholes near foundations; excessive
deflection, displacement erosion, vibration of concrete
structures; movement, deflection or vibration of spillway
gates; or any other unusual condition in the structure or
surrounding terrain.
Detection should be followed by an investigation of the
causes, probable effects, and remedial measures required.
Systematic monitoring of the instrumentation installed in
dams is essential to the inspection program.

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DAMS
Components of an Earth Dam
Transition section
Transition section

Pervious shell

Pervious shell
Rip Rap

Rip Rap

D/S

U/S
Impervious
core

Cutoff
Toe
drain

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It is an impervious element which intends

upwards from the base of the dam to the top
practically always constructed of impervious soil
and may simply be
an extension
of Earth
the cutoff
Components
of an
Dam
wall upwards to the top of dam. Although core
wall is often located
on the longitudinal centre
Transition section
line of the dam, which may be located anywhere
Transition section
Pervious shell
on the upstream side of the centre.

DAMS

Pervious shell
Rip Rap

Rip Rap

D/S

U/S
Impervious
core

Cutoff
Toe
drain

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DAMS

It is a relatively impervious element which

extends down wards through the foundation soil
from the base of the dam. The function is to
reduce the amount
of seepageof water
flowing
Components
an Earth
Dam
through the foundation. This cut-off wall should
be carried down
to solid rock or other very
Transition section
impervious material. Its effectiveness is greatly
Transition section
Pervious shell
reduced, if it extends only part way and seepage
water may flow beneath the cut off wall. It may Pervious shell
be made of steel sheet pile or clay or reinforced
Rip Rap
cone or fineRip
grained
impervious soil.
Rap
D/S

U/S
Impervious
core

Cutoff
Toe
drain

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DAMS

U/S

Components of an Earth Dam

It is made up of pervious
material. The u/s shell section,
Transition section
provide Transition
protection
sectionagainst rap
Pervious shell
draw down which causes
shell of u/s
rotational type Pervious
of failure
slop. The d/s sheet provides
Rip Rap
protection against
out drop of
Rip Rap
D/S
seepage.
Impervious
core

Cutoff
Toe
drain

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DAMS
An intermediate grade of
Components of an Earth
Damis provided to from the
material
section placed between the
Transition section
core walls and previous shell.
Transition section
Pervious shell
The material function like a
filter, prevents
Pervious shell
desilting or
lateral movement of practical
Rip Rap
from the core
walls.

Rip Rap

D/S

U/S
Impervious
core

Cutoff
Toe
drain

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It is placed on the u/s face as

protection against wave wash
and on the d/s slope for
Components
Earth rains.
Dam
protectionof an
against
It
comprises of a 3-5 ft. thick
Transition section
layer of big stones (rock
Transition section
Pervious shell fragment and boulder).

DAMS

Pervious shell
Rip Rap

Rip Rap

D/S

U/S
Impervious
core

Cutoff
Toe
drain

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DAMS

To protect a dam from the effects of seepage

drains are provided. The drains provided
completely intercept the seepage and the
down stream zone is kept free of saturation.
of anmethods.
Earth Dam
The mostComponents
commonly used
Are as
follows:Transition section
Longitudinal
drains and blankets
Transition section
Chimney
drains extending upwards into the
Pervious shell
embankment
Pervious shell
Toe drains
Relief wells
Rip Rap
Rip Rap

D/S

U/S
Impervious
core

Cutoff
Toe
drain

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DAMS
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR EARTH DAM
1)

2)

3)

There should be no danger of overtopping. Overtopping

quickly erodes the d/s slopes and the failure may occur. The
height should be enough that dam is never over topped even
during max anticipated flood.
The seepage line should be well below the d/s slope surface.
If this line is too high is will intersect the d/s slope and the
seepage water will break out on the slope and produces a wet
marshy condition in the vicinity of the d/s toe of the dam.
Provide artificial drainage for seepage water to make the line
low.
The u/s face slope should be safe against sudden draw down
of the reservoir. High stresses are induced in the soil due to
removal of hydrostatic pressure. Therefore provide porous
media on the u/s face taking these factor into consideration.
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DAMS
4)
5)

6)

The u/s & d/s slopes should be flat enough to be stable and
should have satisfactory factor of safety under all conditions.
The u/s & d/s slopes should be flat enough to make the
shearing stresses in the foundation less than the shearing
strength of the foundation soil and to provide a satisfactory
factor of safety.
There should be no free passage of water from the u/s to d/s
face. The surface should be scarified before first layer of soil is
laid and compacted. Provide baffle wall at comparatively short
intervals along the length of conduit which extends through the
dam. Piping is a sort of internal erosion by which small channel
gown in length from the d/s end. If unchecked it may completely
damage the dam. Similarly seepage water may cause boils at
points downstream from the dam. Place layers of coarse and
gravels over the effected area until the weight of over burden
overcomes tendency towards boiling.
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DAMS
7)

8)

When water passes through and under the dam, reaches the
discharge surface, its pressure and velocity should be such
that not to erode the material of the dam and foundation.
Protect u/s & d/s slopes from erosion by rains and wave
action. Place about 3 ft. thick layer of rip rap. Provide 1/8
size stone beneath the rip rap in a layer of 9 to 18, to prevent
washing away of the soil as water rushes through rip rap stone
during wave action.

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DAMS
COMPONENTS OF A WATER POWER SCHEME
A water power development is to utilize the available power in
the fall of a river, through a portion of its course, by means of
hydraulic turbines.
The essential features of a water power development are:

1)

Dam
It is a structure built at a suitable location across the river, both
to create head and a reservoir. In many cases the power
development is at or close to the dam, utilizing the available
head at the dam only, known as concentrated fall
development. In some cases, additional head is obtained by
carrying the water in a waterway for some distance
downstream to the power plant, known as a divided fall
development.
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DAMS
2) Waterway
More often the development must utilize, in addition to the
head created by the dam, an amount obtained by carrying the
water in a waterway, which may be a canal, penstock (closed
pipe) or a combination of these, for some distance
downstream.

Penstock
A penstock is a pipe that conveys water from a fore-bay,
reservoir , or the source to a turbine in hydroelectric plant.
Pressure rise and speed regulation must be considered in the
design of a penstock.
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DAMS

Pressure rise, or water hammer, is the pressure change that

occurs when the rate of flow in a pipe or conduit is changed
rapidly. One important consideration is that the pressure rise
which occurs in a penstock when the turbine wicket gates are
closed after the loss of load.
The penstock connect the wheel units (Turbine) with main
waterway or intake at the Dam. In the case of a short
penstock, there could normally be a pipe for each wheel unit.
For location of penstock, the economically shortest route is
desired. Penstock always sloping towards the powerhouse. To
minimize the pressure and cost of pipe, the part of length of
penstock is kept on as flat a grade as possible and with
sudden pitch to the powerhouse through a relatively short
distance.
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DAMS
The intake of the penstock at the dam or fore bay of the canal
must be at a level low enough to provide an adequate water
seal under all conditions, particularly at low water. This will
commonly mean that the top of penstock at its intake should be
4 or 5ft. or more below the lowest water level.
A gate and usually racks are placed at the entrance of the
penstock. An air vent or a stand pipe connecting the top of the
penstock with the open air should be provided below and near
the gate. This is to permit air to enter the penstock when the
head gates are closed, otherwise dangerous collapsing
pressure may be exerted on the penstock.
The entrance to the penstock should be flared to avoid any loss
of head by contraction. Sharp bends in the penstock should be
avoided, as they cause loss of head and require special
anchorages.

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DAMS
3) The Powerhouse and Equipment
This includes the hydraulic turbines, generators along with their
accessories and the building required for their protection and
operation.

4) The Tailrace
It is the waterway from the powerhouse back to the river. Mostly
the powerhouse is located on the river bank so that no tailrace
channel is required, but occasionally, to develop additional fall, a
tailrace channel of some distance is used.

5) Spillways
A spillway releases water in excess to protect the dam and its
foundation against erosion and possible failure. Spillway is
essential except in small dams where the runoff can be safely
stored in the reservoir without danger of overtopping. Ample
spillway capacity is important for large earth dams.
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DAMS
ESSENTIALS OF GENERAL PLANT
LAYOUT/PLANNING A WATER POWER
DEVELOPMENT
Two basic principles to be kept in mind in planning a water
power development are economy and safety.

FACTORS AFFECTING ECONOMY OF PLANT:

The factors affecting the relative economy of a water power
development may be divided into the characteristics of:

Site
Use and market
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DAMS
1.

Site Characteristics
The site characteristics affect the construction, operating cost of
the plant and the conditions which decide whether a site is
worthy of development and, if so, the best manner of making
this development include the following:

a)

b)

Geological Conditions
The geological conditions for a power site is the suitable
foundation for structure. The absence of a suitable rock
foundation may even prevent the utilization of a power site.
Topographical conditions
They determine the dimensions of the dam, and affect its cost,
the relative proportion of the fall/head to be developed by the
dam and the manner in which the waterway may be
constructed.
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DAMS
c)

d)

e)

Slope of River:
It affects necessary length, cost of waterway, and amount of
poundage obtained at the dam.
Head to discharge Relationship
For the power available, the greater the head as compared to
discharge, the less costly will be the development owing to the
greater capacity required for all the features except the dam, as
discharge increases. In general, the higher head developments are
always less expensive per horsepower of capacity than those of
lower head.
Operating costs:
A stream subjected to frequent floods may have the power frequently
curtailed by back water in the tailrace, and on such a stream flash
boards on the dam may require frequent renewal. The presence of
ice in streams having numerous falls or stretches of quick water also
introduces problems of operation and often adds to its cost.
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DAMS
2.

Use and Market

a)

Location of Market
It includes the conditions affecting the sale price and value of
the power being developed. A water power site may be
developed at low cost but situated far from any possible
market is unworthy of consideration for development.

b)

Load Factor
Certain features of the water power development, particularly
the power house and equipment, vary in cost nearly inversely
to the load factor. It is of advantage, therefore, to keep the
load factor at a hydro-electric development as high as
possible.
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DAMS
GENERAL TYPES OF PLANT (WATER POWER) LAYOUT

a)

Not two alike water power developments will probably ever be

built. However, certain general types of plant layout consistent
with the site characteristics e.g., head, available flow, topography
of river, vicinity etc., are discussed. These factors are more or less
interdependent.
Concentrated Fall
A low-cost development can be made by placing the power house
in the river at one end of the dam (Fig. a). This results in an
undesirable limitation of length of spillway. To obtain necessary
spillway length, the power house must be located as shown in
(Figs. b, c, or d). A development utilizing concentrated fall has
been made by using a hollow concrete dam of the Ambursen type
with power house in the dam.
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DAMS
b)

Divided Fall
In (Fig. e-f) the river banks remain high to afford room for a
canal development which provide an additional head due to fall
in the river between dam and the tailrace level.
In (fig. g) a canal can be used for only a part of the distance. For
large flow, it may be necessary to use more than one penstocks,
although may result in increased cost, as compared with (Fig. e
& f) for a given total length of waterway.
In (Fig. h) the manner is similar to that of g but advantage is
taken of a bend in the river to utilize a greater head for a given
length of waterway.
In (Fig. k) the flow is low enough to permit the use of a penstock
throughout, until near the power house, where a quick descent
is made, usually with individual penstocks to each wheel unit.
Here again a curve in the river is utilized to shorten the length of
penstock.
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DAMS
DAM

DAM
P.H

P.H

DAM
P.H

DAM

P.H

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DAMS
Head
Gates

DAM

Head
Gates

DAM

Canal
Canal

Forebay

Forebay

Penstocks

P.H

P.H

Tailrace

Tailrace

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DAMS
SURGE CHAMBERS

In a hydroelectric plant, the flow of water to a turbine must be

decreased rapidly whenever there is a sudden drop in load. This
results in high water-hammer pressures and may need a very strong
and hence expensive pipe. Surge chambers are used to handle this
situation. A surge chamber is a vertical standpipe connected to the
pipeline (Figure). With steady flow in the pipe, the water level z l in the
surge chamber is below the static level (z=0). When the valve is
suddenly closed, water rises in the surge chamber. The water
surface in the tank will fluctuate up and down damped out by fluid
friction.
Surge chambers are usually open at the top and of sufficient height
so that they will not overflow. In some instances they are permitted to
overflow if no damage will result.
The surge chamber, in the event of a sudden demand for increased
flow, provide some excess water, and the entire mass of water in a
long pipeline is accelerated.
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DAMS
Static level
Z max
Z=0

Reservoir

Z1

Hydraulic grade line

As

L, F, D

Valve

DEFINITION SKETCH FOR SURGE - CHAMBER ANALYSIS

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DAMS
GOVERNING OF AN IMPULSE TURBINE
(PELTON WHEEL)

The load on the generator is always fluctuating. This has some effect
on the turbine. The change of load on the turbine is sure to change its
speed and rate of flow. In order to have a high efficiency at different
loads, the speed of the turbine must be kept constant. The process of
flow is known as governing of the turbine. For an impulse turbine, the
Servomotor or Relay cylinder method is commonly.
The Servomotor method is a mechanism consisting of the following
parts as shown in fig.:
Centrifugal governor Control valve
Servomotor Gear pump
Oil sump
Spear or needle
A set of pipes, connecting oil sump with control valve, and
control valve with relay cylinder.
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DAMS

The centrifugal governor is driven from the main shaft of the

turbine, either by belt or gear arrangement.
The control valve, controls the direction of flow of the liquid
(which is pumped by gear pump from the oil sump) either in
pipe AA or BB.
The servomotor or relay-valve has a piston (whose motion,
towards left or right, depends upon the pressure of the liquid
flowing through the pipes AA or BB) is connected to a spear or
needle, which reciprocates inside the nozzle as shown.
When the turbine is running at its normal speed, the positions
of piston, control valve and fly balls of centrifugal governor will
be in their normal positions (Figure).
The oil pumped by the gear pump, into the control valve, will
come back to the oil sump as the mouths of both the pipes AA
and BB are closed by the two wings of the control valve.
The increase of load on the turbine will decrease its speed.
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DAMS

This will also decrease the speed of centrifugal governor and the fly
balls will come down.
This coming down of the fly balls, will also bring down the sleeve,
which is connected to the central vertical bar.
This downward movement of the sleeve will raise the control valve
rod (sleeve is connected to the control valve rod).
A slight upward movement of the control valve rod will open the
mouth of pipe AA (the mouth of pipe BB closed).
The oil will rush from the control valve to the right side of the piston in
the servomotor through the pipe AA.
This oil, under pressure, will move the piston and spear towards the
left, which will open more area of the nozzle controlling the flow to the
turbine.
This increase in the flow area will increase the rate of flow and the
speed of the turbine increases.
When the speed of the runner will come up to the normal speed, fly
balls will move up and the sleeve as well as the control valve rod will
occupy its normal position.

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DAMS

When the load on the turbine decreases its speed will

increase. As a result of this, the fly balls will go up (due to
increase in centrifugal force) and sleeve will also go up.
This will push the control valve downwards. This downward
movement of the control valve rod will open the mouth of the
pipe BB (still keeping the mouth of the pipe AA closed).
Now the oil (under pressure) will rush from the control valve
to the left side of the piston in servomotor through the pipe
BB.
The oil, under pressure, will move the piston and spear
towards the right, which will decrease the area of the nozzle
and ultimately decrease the rate of flow.
This decrease in the rate of flow will decrease the speed of
the turbine till the speed, once again, comes down to the
normal.
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DAMS
Centrifugal
Governor

Fly Balls

Lever
Sleeve

Control
Valve

Pivot
A

Gear Pump

Spear
B

Oil Sump
Servomotor of
Relay
Cylinder

GOVERNING OF IMPULSE TURBINE

50

Thank You

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