Semana 05:

Conceptos de Radiofrecuencia
Wireless Radio Technology
1. Overview of waves
2.Bandwidth

3. Electromagnetic Spectrum
4. Size of a wave
5. Basics of EM waves
6. Wireles Propagation
a. Attenuation
b. free-Space Waves
c. reflected waves
d. diffraction
e. refraction
d. multipath reflection
1. Overview of Waves

Wave is a disturbance or variation that travels through a medium.

The medium through which the wave travels may experience some
local oscillations as the wave passes, but the particles in the medium
do not travel with the wave.
Just like none of the individual people in the stadium are carried
around when they do the wave, they all remain at their seats.
Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 3
Waves
www.ewart.org.uk

Waves are one way in which energy can move from one place to another.
The waves that you see at the beach are the result of the kinetic energy of
water particles passing through the water.
Other types of energy (such as light, heat, and radio waves) can travel in this
way as well.

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 4

Waves
www.ewart.org.uk

The distance between 2 peaks (or 2 troughs (canal/valle))

is called a wavelength
The deepest part of a trough or the highest part of a peak
is called the amplitude
The frequency is the number of wavelengths that pass by
in 1 second
Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 5
a. Ondas Longitudinales

www.ewart.org.uk

Longitudinal sound waves in the air behave in much the same way.
As the sound wave passes through, the particles in the air oscillate back and
forth from their equilibrium positions but it is the disturbance that travels, not
the individual particles in the medium.
Rick talks in a loud voice.
When he talks he causes the air near his mouth to compress.
A compression wave then passes through the air to the ears of the people
around him.
A longitudinal sound wave has to travel through something - it cannot pass
through a vacuum because there aren't any particles to compress together.
It has a wavelength; a frequency and an amplitude.
Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 6
b. Transverse Waves interactive
activity 3.1.1

Transverse waves on a string are another example.

The string is displaced up and down, as the wave travels from left to right, but
the string itself does not experience any net motion.
A light wave is a transverse wave.
If you look at the waves on the sea they seem to move in one direction ....
towards you.
However, the particles that make up the wave only move up and down.
Look at the animation, on the right, although the wave seems to be moving
from left to right the blue particle is only moving up and down.
Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 7
c. Sine waves

The sine wave is unique in that it represents energy entirely

concentrated at a single frequency.
An ideal wireless signal has a sine waveform
With a frequency usually measured in cycles per second or Hertz
(Hz).
A million cycles per second is represented by megahertz (MHz).
A billion cycles per second represented by gigahertz (GHz).

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 8

Sine waves

Amplitude : The distance from zero to the maximum value of each

alternation is called the amplitude.
The amplitude of the positive alternation and the amplitude of the
negative alternation are the same.
Period :The time it takes for a sine wave to complete one cycle is
defined as the period of the waveform.
The distance traveled by the sine wave during this period is
referred to as its wavelength.
Wavelength : Indicated by the Greek lambda symbol .
It is the distance between one value to the same value on the next
cycle.
Frequency :The number of repetitions or cycles per unit time is the
frequency, typically expressed in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz).

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 9

Relationship between time and frequency
The inverse relationship between time (t), the period in seconds, and
frequency (f), in Hz, is indicated by the following formulas:
t = 1/f (time = 1 / frequency)
f = 1/t (frequency = 1 / time)
Examples:
1 second
t = 1/f 1 second = 1 / 1 Hz (1 cycle per second)
f = 1/t 1 Hz = 1 / 1 second

second
t = 1/f second = 1 / 2 Hz (2 cycles per second)
f = 1/t 2 Hz = 1 / second

1/10,000,000th of a second
t = 1/f 1/10,000,000th of a second = 1 / 10,000,000 Hz (cycles/sec) = 1 / 10 MHz
f = 1/t 10 MHz = 1 / 1/10,000,000th of sec

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 10

Sine waves

180 Phase Shift

One full period or cycle of a sine wave is said to cover 360 degrees
(360).
It is possible for one sine wave to lead or lag another sine wave by any
number of degrees, except zero or 360.
When two sine waves differ by exactly zero or 360, the two waves
are said to be in phase.
Two sine waves that differ in phase by any other value are out of
phase, with respect to each other.

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 11

Analog to digital conversion

1. Analog wave amplitudes are sampled at specific instances in time.

2. Each sample is assigned a discrete value.
3. Each discrete value is converted to a stream of bits.

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 12

2. Bandwidth

There are two common ways of looking at bandwidth:

1. Analog bandwidth
2. Digital bandwidth

1. Analog bandwidth
Analog bandwidth can refer to the range of frequencies .
Analog bandwidth is described in units of frequency, or cycles per
second, which is measured in Hz.
There is a direct correlation between the analog bandwidth of
any medium and the data rate in bits per second that the medium
can support.
Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 13
Bandwidth

2. Digital bandwidth
Digital bandwidth is a measure of how much information can flow
from one place to another, in a given amount of time.
Digital bandwidth is measured in bits per second.
When dealing with data communications, the term bandwidth most
often signifies digital bandwidth.
Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 14
3. EM (Electromagnetic) Spectrum
Basics of EM waves

EM (Electromagnetic) spectrum a set of all types of radiation when

discussed as a group.
Radiation is energy that travels in waves and spreads out over
distance.
The visible light that comes from a lamp in a house and radio waves
that come from a radio station are two types of electromagnetic waves.
Other examples are microwaves, infrared light, ultraviolet light, X-rays,
and gamma rays.

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 16

Basics of EM waves

All EM waves travel at the speed of light in a vacuum and have a

characteristic wavelength () and frequency (f), which can be
determined by using the following equation:
c = x f, where c = the speed of light (3 x 108 m/s)
Wavelength x Frequency = Speed of light
Speed of light = 180,000 miles/sec or
300,000 kilometers/sec or
300,000,000 meters/sec

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 17

Basics of EM waves

300,000 kilometers
or 180,000 miles

150,000 km 150,000 km

wavelength (), frequency (f), speed of light (c)

A wave of 1 cycle per second, has a wavelength of 300,000,000
meters or 300,000 kilometers or 180,000 miles.
Speed of a bit doesnt go beyond the speed of light, Dr. Einstein says
we all go poof (my words, not his)
Speed is a function of increasing the number of waves, bits, in the
Rick same amount of space, I.e. bits per second
Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 18
4. Size of a Wave
Size of a Wave

Its important to visualize the physical size of a wireless

signal because the physical size determines:
1. How that signal interacts with its environment
2. How well it is propagated from antenna to antenna
3. The physical size of the antenna (the smaller the signal
size, the smaller the antenna)
Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 20
Speed of Light

Speed of light = 186,000 miles/sec or 300,000,000 meters/sec (approx.)

Start here End here
1 second

186,000 miles

Mile: 0 Mile: 186,000

1 mile
5,280 feet per mile; so 186,000 miles = 982,080,000 feet
63,360 inches per mile; so 186,000 miles = 11,784,960,000 inches

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 21

Wavelength All About Wavelength
http://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/EDDOCS/wavelength.html

Speed of the wave = Frequency x Wavelength

Wavelength = Speed of the wave or speed of light / Frequency
Speed of light =
186,000 miles/sec or
982,080,000 feet/sec or
11,784,960,000 inches/sec

Wavelength = Speed of the wave or speed of light/ Frequency

10.93 feet = 982,080,000 feet per sec / 90,000,000 cycles per sec
Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 22
 Speed of Light

Speed of light = 186,000 miles/sec

Mile: 0, Mile:
beginning of Length of rope 186,000 miles long 186,000,
rope end of rope

0 seconds
After 1/2 second

After 1 second

0 second 1 second

1 second

Length of rope (cuerda/cordel) 186,000 miles long traveling at the

speed of light, 186,000 miles/second
In 1 second we would see the entire length of rope go by.
Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 23
5. Basics of EM Waves
Basics of EM waves

EM waves exhibit the following properties:

1. Reflection or bouncing
2. Refraction or bending
3. Diffraction or spreading around obstacles
4. Scattering or being redirected by particles
This will be discussed in greater detail later in this module.
Also, the frequency and the wavelength of an EM wave are inversely
proportionally to one another.
Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 25
Basics of EM waves

There are a number of

properties that apply to
all EM waves,
including:
1. Direction
2. Frequency
3. Wavelength
4. Power
5. Polarization
6. Phase.

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 26

EM Spectrum Chart

One of the most important diagrams in both science and engineering is the
chart of the EM spectrum .
The typical EM spectrum diagram summarizes the ranges of frequencies, or
bands that are important to understanding many things in nature and
technology.
EM waves can be classified according to their frequency in Hz or their
wavelength in meters.
The most important range for this course is the RF (Radio Frequency)
spectrum.
Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 27
EM Spectrum Chart

The RF spectrum includes several frequency bands including:

1. Microwave
2. Ultra High Frequencies (UHF)
3. Very High Frequencies (VHF)
This is also where WLANs operate.
The RF spectrum ranges from 9 kHz to 300 GHz.
Consists of two major sections of the EM spectrum: (RF Spectrum)
Radio Waves
Microwaves.
The RF frequencies, which cover a significant portion of the EM radiation
spectrum, are used heavily for communications.
Most of the RF ranges are licensed, though a few key ranges are unlicensed.
Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 28
 EM Spectrum Chart

Nasa.gov

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Nasa.gov

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 30

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu www.britishlibrary.net31
Licensed Frequencies
Frequency bands have a limited number of useable different
frequencies, or communications channels.
Many parts of the EM spectrum are not useable for communications
and many parts of the spectrum are already used extensively for this
purpose.
The electromagnetic spectrum is a finite resource.
One way to allocate this limited, shared resource is to have
international and national institutions that set standards and laws as to
how the spectrum can be used.
In the US, it is the FCC that regulates spectrum use.
In Europe, the European Telecommunications Standards Institute
(ETSI) regulates the spectrum usage.
Frequency bands that require a license to operate within are called the
licensed spectrum.
Examples include amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency
modulation (FM) radio, ham or short wave radio, cell phones,
broadcast television, aviation bands, and many others.
In order to operate a device in a licensed band, the user must first
apply for and be granted the appropriate license.
Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 32
ISM (Industrial, Scientific, and Medical) &
U-NII (Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure)
Some areas of the spectrum have been left unlicensed.
This is favorable for certain applications, such as WLANs.
An important area of the unlicensed spectrum is known as the industrial,
scientific, and medical (ISM) bands and the U-NII (Unlicensed National
Information Infrastructure)
ISM 802.11b, 802.11g
U-NII 802.11a
These bands are unlicensed in most countries of the world.
The following are some examples of the regulated items that are related to
WLANs:
The FCC has defined eleven 802.11b DSSS channels and their
corresponding center frequencies. ETSI has defined 13.
The FCC requires that all antennas that are sold by a spread spectrum
vendor be certified with the radio with which it is sold.
Unlicensed bands are generally license-free, provided that devices are low
power.
After all, you dont need to license your microwave oven or portable phone.

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 33

6. Wireless Propagation

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 34

Wireless Propagation

Wireless propagation is the total of everything that happens to a

wireless signal as the signal travels from Point A to Point B.
The study of how EM waves travel and interact with matter can
become extremely complex.

There are several important simplifications which can be made.

In a vacuum, 2.4 GHz microwaves travel at the speed of light.
Once started, these microwaves will continue in the direction they were emitted
forever, unless they interact with some form of matter.
In the atmosphere, the microwaves are traveling in air, not in a vacuum.
This does not significantly change their speed.
Similar to light, when RF travels through transparent matter, some of the waves
are altered.
2.4 & 5 GHz microwaves also change, as they travel through matter.
Amount of alteration depends heavily on the frequency of the waves and the
Rickmatter.
Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 35
Wireless Propagation

Mental picture
Wave is not a spot or a line, but a moving wave.
Like dropping a rock into a pond.
Wireless waves spread out from the antenna.
Wireless waves pass through air, space, people, objects,

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 36

a. Attenuation

Same wavelength (frequency),

less amplitude.

Attenuation is the loss in amplitude that occurs whenever a signal

travels through wire, free space, or an obstruction.
At times, after colliding with an object the signal strength remaining is
too small to make a reliable wireless link.

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 37

Attenuation and Obstructions

Shorter the wavelength (higher frequency) of the wireless signal, the

more the signal it is attenuated.

Same wavelength
(frequency), less
amplitude.

Longer the wavelength (lower frequency) of the wireless signal, the

less the signal is attenuated.
Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 38
Attenuation and Obstructions

The wavelength for the AM (810 kHz) channel is 1,214 feet

The larger the wavelength of the signal relative to the size of the
obstruction, the less the signal is attenuated.
The shorter the wavelength of the signal relative to the size of the
obstruction, the more the signal is attenuated.

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 39

b. Free-Space Waves

Free-space wave is a signal that propagates from Point A

to Point B without encountering or coming near an
obstruction.
The only amplitude reduction is due to free space loss
(coming).
This is the ideal wireless scenario.
Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 40
c. Reflected Waves

When a wireless signal encounters an obstruction, normally two

things happen:
1. Attenuation The shorter the wavelength of the signal relative to
the size of the obstruction, the more the signal is attenuated.
2. Reflection The shorter the wavelength of the signal relative to the
size of the obstruction, the more likely it is that some of the signal will
be reflected off the obstruction.

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 41

Microwave Reflections

Microwave signals:
Frequencies between 1 GHz 30 GHz (this can vary among
experts).
Wavelength between 12 inches down to less than 1 inch.
Microwave signals reflect off objects that are larger than their
wavelength, such as buildings, cars, flat stretches of ground, and
bodes of water.
Each time the signal is reflected, the amplitude is reduced.
Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 42
Reflection

Reflection is the light bouncing back in the general direction from which
it came.
Consider a smooth metallic surface as an interface.
As waves hit this surface, much of their energy will be bounced or
reflected.
Think of common experiences, such as looking at a mirror or watching
sunlight reflect off a metallic surface or water.
When waves travel from one medium to another, a certain percentage
of the light is reflected.
This is called a Fresnel reflection (Fresnel coming later).
Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 43
Reflection

Radio waves can bounce off of different layers of the atmosphere.

The reflecting properties of the area where the WLAN is to be installed
are extremely important and can determine whether a WLAN works or
fails.
Furthermore, the connectors at both ends of the transmission line
going to the antenna should be properly designed and installed, so
that no reflection of radio waves takes place.

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 44

Reflections

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 45

Microwave Reflections
Multipath Reflection

Advantage: Can use reflection to go around obstruction.

Disadvantage: Multipath reflection occurs when reflections cause
more than one copy of the same transmission to arrive at the receiver
at slightly different times.

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 46

d. Diffraction

Diffracted
Signal

Diffraction of a wireless signal occurs when the signal is partially

blocked or obstructed by a large object in the signals path.
A diffracted signal is usually attenuated so much it is too weak to
provide a reliable microwave connection.
Do not plan to use a diffracted signal, and always try to obtain an
unobstructed path between microwave antennas.
Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 47
Weather - Precipitation

Precipitation: Rain, snow, hail, fog, and sleet.

Rain, Snow and Hail
Wavelength of 2.4 GHz 802.11b/g signal is 4.8 inches
Wavelength of 5.7 GHz 802.11a signal is 2 inches
Much larger than rain drops and snow, thus do not significantly
attenuate these signals.
At frequencies 10 GHz and above, partially melted snow and hail do
start to cause significant attenuation.
Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 48
Weather - Precipitation

Rain can have other effects:

Get inside tiny holes in antenna systems, degrading the
performance.
Cause surfaces (roads, buildings, leaves) to become more
reflective, increasing multipath fading.
Tip: Use unobstructed paths between antennas, and do not try to blast
through trees, or will have problems.
Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 49
 Collapsed tower
Weather - Ice

Ice buildup on antenna systems can:

Reduce system performance
Physically damage the antenna system
Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 50
Weather - Wind

The affect of wind:

Antenna on the the mast or tower can turn, decreasing the aim of
the antenna.
The mast or tower can sway or twist, changing the aim.
The antenna, mast or tower could fall potentially injuring someone
or something.
Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 51
e. Refraction
Sub-Refraction

Refraction (straight line)

Normal
Refraction

Earth

Refraction (or bending) of signals is due to temperature, pressure,

and water vapor content in the atmosphere.
Amount of refractivity depends on the height above ground.
Refractivity is usually largest at low elevations.
The refractivity gradient (k-factor) usually causes microwave signals to
curve slightly downward toward the earth, making the radio horizon
father away than the visual horizon.
This can increase the microwave path by about 15%,
Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 52
Refraction

Radio waves also bend when entering different materials.

This can be very important when analyzing propagation in the
atmosphere.
It is not very significant in WLANs, but it is included here, as part of a
general background for the behavior of electromagnetic waves.
Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 53
f. Multipath Reflection

Reflected signals 1 and 2 take slightly longer paths than direct signal,
arriving slightly later.
These reflected signals sometimes cause problems at the receiver by
partially canceling the direct signal, effectively reducing the amplitude.
The link throughput slows down because the receiver needs more time
to either separate the real signal from the reflected echoes or to wait
for missed frames to be retransmitted.
Solution discussed later.
Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 54
Free Space Path Loss

It regards to the distance that RF signals can successfully

travel and be received properly.
Its the result of the normal attenuation that happens, as
the signal gradually weakens over the distance it travels.
Factors that determines the effects of FSPL:
A. Active gain: AP can amplify the signal
B. Passive gain : It comes from the particular shape of the
antenna pattern itself.

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 55

FSPL: Formulas

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 56

 En el transmisor:
La antena transforma la seal elctrica en una onda
electromagntica mediante la excitacin de campos
elctricos o magnticos en su medio circundante inmediato.
En el receptor:
La antena captura energa del campo
electromagntico y la transforma en corriente y voltaje
en el circuito elctrico.

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 57

 El campo elctrico o magntico oscilatorio genera una
onda electromagntica que se propaga con la velocidad de
la luz c .
La velocidad de la luz en el espacio vaco c es
299.792.458 m/s.
Para efectos prcticos ser : 3x10^8 m/s

Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 58