1

The leader
(trait, style, behavior, The task
vision, charisma)
(from holistic to
reductionism,
needing discretion or
The led (follower) direction)
(motivations, readiness,
attitudes)

The organization
(structural, political, moral purpose)

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Contingency Theory of Leadership
Contingency theory of leadership
assumes that there is no one best way
to lead. Effective leadership depends on
the leaders and followers
characteristics as well as other factors
in the leadership situation.

2
 Central Features of the Contingency
Theory of Leadership
Best way: there is no one best way to lead.
Leadership style: Different leadership styles
are appropriate for different situations.
Middle ground: The contingency theory
stresses the views that (a) there is some
middle ground between the existence of
universal principles of leadership that fit all
situations and (b) each situation is unique
and therefore must be studied and treated as
unique.
3
 Central Features of the Contingency
Theory of Leadership (Cont.)
Focus: The contingency theories of leadership
we studied focus on three variables: (a)
leaders style; (b) followers motivation and
skill; and (c) the nature of the task.
Adaptability of leadership style: For an
individual leader, this theory assumes that
leadership is changeable and should be
variable for different situations.

4
Tannenbaum-Schmidts Continuum of
Leader Behavior
(Democratic) (Authoritarian)]
Relationships Oriented Task Oriented

Area of Freedom for

Source of
Authority

Subordinates

Leader Leader Leader Leader

permits presents presents makes
subordinates problem, idea decision
to function gets and and
within limits Leader suggestions, Leader invites Leader announce
defined defines and makes presents questions sells it
by superior limits; decision tentative decision
asks group decision
to make subject
decision to change
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 The Leadership Grid
High 1,9 9,9
Country Club Management Team Management
8 Thoughtful attention to the needs Work accomplishment is from
of the people for satisfying committed people;
7 relationships leads to a interdependence through a
comfortable, friendly organization common stake in organization
Concern for People

6 atmosphere and work tempo purpose leads to relationships of

trust and respect
Middle-of-the-road Management
5 5,5
Adequate organization performance is possible through
4 balancing the necessity to get work out while
maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level.
3 Impoverished Management Authority-Compliance Management
Exertion of minimum effort to get required Efficiency in operations results from arranging
2 work done is appropriate to sustain conditions of work in such a way that human
organization membership. elements interfere to a minimum degree
1 1,1 9,1
Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Low Concern for Results High

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Fiedlers Leadership Contingency Model

Task-oriented style Relationships-oriented Task-oriented style

considerate style

Favorable leadership Situation intermediate Unfavorable leadership

situation in favorable lenses for situation
leader

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Fiedlers Leadership Contingency Model (Cont.)
Leaders Motivational Situational Favorableness Outcome
System

Major variables 1. Leader-Member

In Fiedlers Relationships
Contingency Leadership Style 2. Task Structure Effectiveness
Theory 3. Leaders Position
Power

8
Fiedlers Leadership Contingency Model(Cont.)
Synthesis of the Fiedler Contingency Model

Performance Task-oriented
Good Relationship-oriented

Poor Favorable Moderate Unfavorable

Category I II III IV V VI VII VIII

Leader- member Good Good Good Good Poor Poor Poor Poor
relations
Task structure High High Low Low High High Low Low

Position power Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak

Source: Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behavior, 6th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Pre-
Tice Hall, 1993), P. 375.

9
Vroom-Yettens Contingency Model
Figure 5-5 Schematic representation of variables used in leadership research
Reprinted from Leadership and Decision-Making by Victor H. Vroom and Philip W. Yetton by permission of the
University of Pittsburgh Press. 1973 by University of Pittsburgh Press

Situational variables (1) Organizational (4)

effectiveness
Leader behavior(3)

Personal attributes(2) Situational variables(1a)

Is there a Do I have Is the Is acceptance Do subordinates Is conflict

quality re- sufficient problem of decision share the organ- among subor-
quirement such information structured? by subordinates izational goal dinates likely
that one solu- to make a critical to to be obtained in preferred
tion is likely high quality effective im- in solving this solutions?
to be more decision? plementation? problem?
rational than
another?
A B C D E F

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House-Mitchells Path-Goal Theory

Causal Variables Moderator Variables Outcome Variables

Leader Behavior Subordinate Characteristics Satisfaction
Directive Ability Motivation
supportive Locus of Control Effort
participative Needs and Motives Performance
Relationship of Achievement-Oriented Environmental Forces
Variables in the The task
Path-Goal Theory Work Group
Authority System

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House-Mitchells Path-Goal Theory
Figure 2.4 Houses Path-Goal Theory

Situations Leadership Leadership

style Actions
Ambiguous Directive Guidance
Roles Procedures
Stressful Welfare,
Boring Tasks Supportive Supportive
Climate
Leaders Goal
Accomplishment
Competent Achievement Challenging
Subordinates Oriented Goals and
Standards
Unstructured Participation
Tasks Participative in Decision
Making

Path Goal

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 Blanchard and Herseys Theory of Situational
Leadership

Task Behavior---The extent to which the leader engages in defining roles is

telling what, how, when, where, and if more than one person who is to
do what in:
Goal-setting
Organizing
Establishing time lines
Directing
Controlling
Relationship BehaviorThe extent to which a leader engages in two-way
(multi-way) communication, listening, facilitating behaviors, and
providing socioemotional support
Giving support
Communicating
Facilitating interactions
Active listening
Providing feedback

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 Blanchard and Herseys Theory of Situational
Leadership (Cont.)

Decision Styles
1. Leader-made decision
2. Leader-made decision with Dialogue and/or
Explanation
3. Leader/follower made decision or follower-
made decision with encouragement from
leader
4. Follower-made decision

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Blanchard and Herseys Theory of Situational
Leadership (Cont.)
Leadership Behavior

S3 (Participation) S2 (Selling)
(High) Share ideas and facilitate Explain decision and
in decision making provide opportunity
(Supportive Behavior)
Relationship Behavior

for clarification
High relationship High Task
Low task High Relationship
Low relationship High task
low task Low relationship
S4 (Delegating) S1(Telling)
Turn over responsibility Provide specific
for decisions and instructions and closely
(Low) implementation supervise performance
(Low) Task Behavior (High)
(Directive Behavior)

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 Blanchard and Herseys Theory of Situational
Leadership (Cont.)
Ability: has the necessary knowledge, experience, and skill
Willingness: has the necessary confidence, commitment, motivation
Follower Readiness
High Moderate Low
R4 R3 R2 R1
Able and Able but Unable but Unable and
Willing Unwilling Willing Unwilling
or Confident or Insecure or Confident or Insecure
Follower Directed Leader Directed
When a leader behavior is used appropriately with its corresponding level of readiness, it is
termed a High Probability Match. The following are descriptors that can be useful when
using situational leadership for specific applications.
S1 S2 S3 S4
Telling Selling Participating Delegating
Guiding Explaining Encouraging Observing
Directing Clarifying Collaborating Monitoring
Establishing Persuading Committing Fulfilling

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Table 2.3
Contingency and Situational Theories and Models
Theories Situational Variables Leadership Styles
Fiedlers Contingency Theory The Quality of leader-subordinates relations Task-oriented
The leaders position power Relationship-oriented
The degree of task structure
Houses Path-Goal Theory The subordinates Directive, Supportive
The environment Participative, Achievement-oriented
Hersey and Blanchards Subordinated maturity Telling, Sharing, Participating,
Situational Leadership Delegating
Theory
Blake and Moutons All situations Five styles
Leadership Grid
Vroom and Yettons Decision quality importance AI (you solve the problem)
Decision Model Leaders possession of relevant information AII (obtain info, then solve the prob.)
Degree of structure contained in problem CI (share with individual followers, obtain
Importance of subordinates acceptance of info, you decide)
the decision
Probability that subordinates will accept the CII (share with followers as a group,
leaders decision obtain collective info, you decide)
The importance of shared purpose and goals GII (share the problems with followers as a
The amount of conflict among subordinates group, decide together)

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An overview of research
Ultimately, all studies which inquire into the relationship
between leadership effectiveness, on one hand, and other
factors, on the other, belong to the category of contingency
theory of leadership.
Quantitative methods are used in this line of research.
This line of research will
continue. What we need
is a more comprehensive
model to synthesize
the research.

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Questions for discussion

To what extent do you identify with the

contingency of leadership? Why?
What is the implication for leadership if
we view from the contingency
perspective?
In your judgment, what are the
strengths and limitations of the
contingency theory of leadership?

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 Contributions of the Contingency Theory of
Leadership

It moves beyond the assumption of the best

way to lead and indicates that the
effectiveness of leadership is the match
between leaders style and situational factors.
It is an optimistic approach.
It provides a useful framework to synthesize
the research on leadership.

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Criticism of Blanchard and Herseys Situational
Model (Bolman & Deal, 1991, pp. 419-420)
It fails to distinguish between support for a person and support
for specific actions. (Does it mean that When children are
unmotivated and unskilled, parents and teachers should provide
high discretion and low support until they shape up?)
It oversimplifies the options available to leaders and the range
of situations that leaders encounter.
It also neglects the Pygmalion effect (the self- fulfilling
prophecy).
It makes an illusory promise to make leaders lives less
confusing and perplexing, and has come to become a secular
religion in leadership theory.

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A Joke: Do we use the model?
A major corporation was developing a new
management training program for a group of some
2,000 technical managers. A task force with
representatives from two divisions in the company
came together to decide what should be taught. The
representatives from division A had participated in
Managerial Grid seminars. They know in their hearts
that the grid was the one best way and that it should
be the foundation of the seminar. The managers in
division B had attended situational management
seminars, and their faith in the situational model was
equally unshakable.

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A Joke: Do we use the model? (cont.)
Initially, the two sides engaged in polite talk and rational
argument. When that failed, the conversation gradually became
more heated. Eventually, the group found itself hopelessly
deadlocked. An outside consultant came in to mediate the
dispute. She listened while the representatives from each
division reviewed the conversation. The consultant then said to
the group, Im impressed by the passion on both sides. Im
curious about one thing. If you all believe so deeply in these
models and if it makes a difference which models someone
learns, why cant I see any difference in the behavior of the two
groups? Stunned silence fell over the room. Finally one
member said, You know, I think hes right. We dont use the
damn models, we just preach them. That was the end of the
impasse.

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