Kingdom Animalia

Animal Species

 Somewhere around 9 or 10 million

species of animals inhabit the earth.

 About 800,000 species have been

identified.
 Animal Phyla
Biologists recognize about
36 separate phyla within
the Kingdom Animalia.
 Mollusca
5%

Chordata
Arthropoda Other
2%
87% 12%
Cnidaria
1%
Platyhelminthes
1%
Nematoda
1%
Annelida
1%

Porifera
1%
Echinodermata
1%
 ~ Characteristics ~
 Multicellular

 Eukaryotic with no cell walls

 Heterotrophs (consumers)
 ~ Characteristics ~
 Have a nervous system to respond to their
environment

 Locomotion relates to ability to obtain food

 Most animals develop from a zygote

becoming a single layer of cells
surrounding a fluid-filled space forming a
hollow ball of cells called a gastrula.
 ~ Characteristics ~

 Allanimals are multicellular,

mitochondrial heterotrophs—they
have multiple cells with mitochondria
and they rely on other organisms for
their nourishment.
 Most animals ingest their food and
then digest it in some kind of internal
cavity.
 Animal Reproduction
 Most animals reproduce sexually, by
means of differentiated haploid cells
(eggs and sperm).
 Most animals are diploid, meaning that
the cells of adults contain two copies of
the genetic material.
 Animal Sizes
 Animals range in size from no more
than a few cells (like the mesozoans) to
organisms weighing many tons (like the
blue whale).

a mesozoan blue whale

 Animal Habitats
 Most animals inhabit the seas, with
fewer in fresh water and even fewer on
land.
 Animal Cells
 Animal cells, like all eukaryotic cells,
have internal structures called
organelles that serve specific functions
for the cell.
 Animal cells lack the rigid cell walls that
characterize plant cells.
Animal Cell Diagram
 Animal Bodies
 The bodies of most animals (all except
sponges) are made up of cells
organized into tissues.
 Each tissue is specialized to perform
specific functions.
 In most animals, tissues are organized
into even more specialized organs.
 Animal Symmetry
 The most primitive animals are
asymmetrical.
 Cnidarians and echinoderms are radially
symmetrical.
 Most animals are bilaterally
symmetrical.
~ Developmental Characteristics ~
 The gastrula is made up of three parts:
– Ectoderm, a layer of cells on the outer surface
of the gastrula, grows and divides developing
into skin and nervous tissue.

– Endoderm, a layer of cells lining the inner

surface of the gastrula, develops into the
lining of the animal’s digestive tract.

– Mesoderm, made up of two layers of cells

lying between the ectoderm and endoderm,
forms muscles, reproductive organs and
circulatory vessels.
~ Developmental Characteristics ~
 Animals that develop a mouth from the
indented space in the gastrula are
protostomes.

 Animals that develop an anus from the

opening in the gastrula are
deuterostomes.
 Animal Symmetry
 The most primitive animals are
asymmetrical.
 Cnidarians and echinoderms are radially
symmetrical.
 Most animals are bilaterally
symmetrical.
 ~ Body Plans ~
 Animals that are
irregular in shape are
asymmetrical.

 Animals that are

regular in shape are
symmetrical.
~ Body Plans ~

 An animal has radial symmetry if it

can be divided along any plane,
through a central axis, into equal
halves.

 An animal has bilateral symmetry if

it can be divided down its length
into similar right and left halves
forming mirror images of each other.
 Radial Symmetry
 …applies to forms that can be divided
into similar halves by more than two
planes passing through it.
 Animals with radial symmetry are
usually sessile, free-floating, or weakly
swimming.
 Bilateral Symmetry
 Animals with bilateral symmetery are
most well-suited for directional
movement.
Which figure has bilateral symmetry?
Which has radial symmetry?
Radial vs. Bilateral
Symmetry
3 Major Bilateral Body Plans
 Acoelomates
 Pseudocoelomates
 Coelomates
 Each plan consists of 3 cell layers:
endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm
 ~ Body Plans ~
 Acoelomates – animals have three cell
layers with a digestive tract but no body
cavities.

 Pseudocoelomates – animals with a fluid-

filled body cavity partly lined with
mesoderm.

 Coelomates – animals with a body cavity

completely surrounded by mesoderm.
 Acoelomates
 These animals have
no other cavity than
the gut.
 They are often
called the “solid
worms.”
 Pseudocoelomates
 These animals have a body
cavity (the pseudocoelom)
which is not completely
lined with mesoderm.
 The “tube within a tube”
body plan.
 This category is also
composed of mostly
worms.
 Coelomates
 These animals have a
“true coelom” lined with
mesodermal peritoneum.
 Most animals are
coelomate.
 ~ Protection and Support ~
 Though not all animals have a skeleton,
those that do can be divided into two
groups:
– Those with an exoskeleton – a hard,
waxy coating on the outside of the body
that protects internal organs, provides a
framework for support, and a place for
muscle attachment.

– Those with an endoskeleton – support

framework within the body that protects
some organs and a brace for muscles to
pull against.
 ~Invertebrates~
 8 main phyla

 No backbones

 95% of all animals are in this group

~Invertebrate
Phylum Porifera~
 Sponges

 simplest form of animal life

 live in water

 Do not move around

 no symmetry

 Pores (holes) all over body

~Invertebrate
Phylum Porifera~
 Filter Feeders: a sponge filters particles of
food from water using collar cells and then
pumps the water out the osculum.
~Invertebrate
Phylum Porifera~
 Examples: Tube
Sponge, Glass
Sponge, Sea Sponge
~Invertebrate
Phylum Cnidaria~

 Live in water

 Most have tentacles

 catch food with stinging cells

 gut for digesting

~Invertebrate
Phylum Cnidaria~
 2 different
shapes

 Medusa - like a
jellyfish

 Polyp - like a
hydra
~Invertebrate
Phylum Cnidaria~
 Examples -
Jellyfish, Hydra,
sea anemones, and
corals
~Invertebrate
Phylum Platyhelminthes ~
 Flatworms

 Flat, ribbon-like body

 Live in water or are parasites

 bilateral symmetry
~Invertebrate
Phylum Platyhelminthes ~
 Examples: Planaria

 eyespots detect light

 food and waste go

in and out the same
opening
~Invertebrate
Phylum Platyhelminthes ~
 Examples:
Tapeworm

 Parasite that
lives in intestines
of host
absorbing food
~Invertebrate
Phylum Platyhelminthes ~
 Examples: Fluke
 parasite

 lives inside
of host
~Invertebrate
Phylum Nematoda ~
 Roundworms

– Round, tubular body

– small or microscopic

– bilateral symmetry

– have both a mouth and anus

– Live in water or are parasites

~Invertebrate
Phylum Nematoda ~
 Examples:
– Hookworm

– Trichinella
~Invertebrate
Phylum Mollusca ~
 Soft bodies

 Hard Shells

 Live on land or in water

 have a circulatory system and a complex

nervous system.

 Important food source for humans

~Invertebrate
Phylum Mollusca ~
Class Gastropoda

– snails and slugs

– may have 1 shell

– stomach-footed -
move on stomach
~Invertebrate
Phylum Mollusca ~
Class Bivalves

– 2 shells hinged
together

– clams, oysters,
scallops and
mussels
~Invertebrate
Phylum Mollusca ~

Class Cephalopods

–squids and octopuses

–internal mantel
~Invertebrate
Phylum Annelida ~
–Segemented worms

– Body divided into

segments (sections)

– Live in water or
underground

– have a nervous and circulatory system

 ~Invertebrate
Phylum Annelida ~
 Class Earthworms

 eat soil and

breakdown
organic matter,
wastes provide
nutrients to soil
~Invertebrate
Phylum Annelida ~
Class bristleworms
 ~Invertebrate
Phylum Annelida ~
 Class leeches

 Parasites that feed on blood of other animals

~Invertebrate
Phylum Echinodermata ~
 Hard, spiny skin

 Live in salt water

 Radial symmetry

 name means ‘spiney skinned’

 endoskeleton
~Invertebrate
Phylum Echinodermata ~
 Examples: seastar, sea urchin, sand dollar
and sea cucumber
~Invertebrate
Phylum Arthropoda ~
 Body divided into sections/segments

 Exoskeleton

 Jointed legs

 well developed nervous system

 largest group of organisms on earth

~Invertebrate
Phylum Arthropoda ~
 3 subphylums:

 Classified into classes according to the

number of legs, eyes and antennae they
have.
~Invertebrate
Phylum Arthropoda ~
Subphylum Chilicerata
is divided into 3 classes

Arachnida – spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites

Merostomata – horseshoe crabs

Pycnogonida – sea spiders

~Invertebrate Phylum
Arthropoda ~ Subphylum Chilicerata
 Class – Arachnida

 no antennae

 4 pairs of legs

 2 body regions - cephalothorax & abdomen

 spiders, scorpions, mites & ticks

~Invertebrate Phylum
Arthropoda ~ Subphylum Chilicerata
 Class Merostomata

 Horseshoe crabs
– Ancient group of species

– Changed little over 350 million years

– Aquatic, mostly found on Atlantic & gulf

coasts of United States.
~Invertebrate Phylum
Arthropoda ~ Subphylum Chilicerata
 Class Pycnogonida
– Sea spider
~Invertebrate Phylum
Arthropoda ~ Subphylum - Crustacea
5 Classes
 Aquatic ones have gills

 2 antennae

 2 body regions or segmented

 Shrimp, lobsters, crabs, barnacles, isopods

 Many species taste delicious in butter

 Subphylum Uniramia: 3 classes

 Class Insecta (insects)

 Class Chilopoda (Centipedes)

 Class Diplopoda (Millipedes)

~Invertebrate Phylum
Arthropoda ~ Subphylum Uniramia
 Class Insecta

 no antennae

 3 pairs of legs

 2 body regions - head, thorax & abdomen

 grasshoppers, ants, butterflies, bees

~Invertebrate
Phylum Arthropoda ~ Subphylum Uniramia
 Class Diplopoda

 Millipedes

 segmented animals

 Have 2 pairs of legs per segment

 Primarily herbivores & decomposers

~Invertebrate Phylum
Arthropoda ~ Subphylum Uniramia

 Class Chiopoda

 Centipedes Usually terrestrial carnivores

 Have 1 pair of antennae

 Are often poisonous, using modified front

claws to immobilize prey
 Phylum Chordata
 Members of the Phylum Chordata include
animals with which students are most
likely familiar.
 Included in the phylum are the fish, birds,
reptiles, amphibians and beasts like
ourselves
 Structural Characteristics
 (1) a notochord,
 (2) a pharyngeal gill slits,
 (3) postanal tail, and
 (4) a hollow dorsal nerve cord.
 These attributes are always found in the
larval forms or early embryo (although
they may be absent in the adult).
 Subphylum Urochordates

 Urochordates have a notochord that

extends from just behind the head to the
tail (rather than from head to tail;
Urochordata means "tail-cord").
 There are three classes within this
subphylum: Ascidiacea, Thaliacea, and
Larvacea.
 Class Ascidiacea

 Adult ascidians (commonly called "sea squirts")

are sessile inhabitants of the intertidal zone.
Depending on the species, they may be either
solitary or colonial and most are monoecious.
 All are filter feeders. Water with suspended
plankton is drawn through an incurrent siphon
into the pharynx Organic particulates are
strained from the water by the pharyngeal gill
slits and trapped in mucus at the base of the
pharynx.
 Class Ascidiacea
 Ciliary movements carry the food-mucus mixture to the
stomach where digestion begins.
 The filtered water, on the other hand, passes from the
pharynx to the atrium and out the excurrent siphon (the
intestine also empties near the excurrent siphon).
 A body wall (or mantle) lines the body cavity and aids in
respiration.
 The outer surface of the animal is covered by a tough
tunic (or test; the presence of the tunic furnishes
another common name for sea squirts: the "tunicates").
While the tunic of most species is opaque, that of
Ecteinascidia is transparent (allowing easy observation of
their internal structure).
 Class Ascidiacea

Internal organs of an adult ascidian (sea squirt).

Large arrows show water flow through the animal;
small arrows, the path food trapped by
the pharyngeal gill slits takes through the animal.
 Class Thaliacea

 Thaliaceans are odd, barrel-shaped things

commonly known as "salps".
 They are surrounded by circular muscle bands
and both ends of their cylindrical body are open.
 Contractions of the circular muscles make the
body pulsate; drawing water in the incurrent
siphon and forcing it out the excurrent.
 This endows them both with a form of jet
propulsion and a mechanism for filter-feeding
(suspended food is removed from the water by
the pharyngeal gill slits).
 Class Larvacea

 Larvacians superficially resemble ascidian larvae and are the

most specialized of the urochordates.
 They build a peculiar "mobile home" within which they travel
throughout their lives (sort of a pelagic Winnebago).
 The thin walls of their mobile homes afford them little
protection from predators (or the ear-splitting heavy metal
music of their neighbors), but serve instead to collect and
funnel water through their bodies.
 Like adult ascidians, pharyngeal gill slits are used for feeding.
 The similarity between ascidian larvae and adult larvacians
suggests they may be neotenous urochordates (e.g. the larval
forms have attained sexual maturity without loss of larval
structures, such as the tail).
 Subphylum Cephalochordates
 Lancelets are common bottom-dwelling forms that possess all four
chordate characteristics (a notochord, dorsal tail, etc).
 They dig into the sand and lie with their anterior end protruding
from the burrow. Water with food is pumped past the oral tentacles
(buccal cirri) and into the pharynx.
 The cirri strain out large particles and also have a sensory function.
 Food is separated from the in-coming water by the action of the
pharyngeal gill slits (that also aid in respiration).
 The filtered water then passes into a cavity (atrium) and out the
atriopore. The remainder of the digestive system consists of a
tubular intestine with a ventral outpocketing (digestive caecum).
 Although lancelets are most often seen in their burrows, they can
swim and posses several adaptations for their active lifestyle.
 Subphylum Cephalochordates
 Unlike the urochordates, for example, the notochord
extends along the entire length of their body. This
structure imparts rigidity to their body and permits more
coordinated swimming movements.
 The muscles (myonemes) are <-shaped and run the
length of the animal.
 The segmental arrangement of the myonemes facilitates
the lateral movements used during swimming.
 A long dorsal fin, a posterior caudal fin, and the short
ventral fin are supported by fibrous fin rays to increase
their effectiveness during locomotion.
Subphylum Cephalochordates

Whole mount of the lancelet Branchiostoma (amphioxus).

The inset shows a cross section through the pharynx.
 Subphylum Vertebrata

 Members of the Subphylum Vertebrata differ

from the urochordates and cephalochordates in
having the notochord replaced by a vertebral
column composed of bone and/or cartilage.
 The vertebral column, along with the cranium,
limb girdles, and limbs, make up the
endoskeleton.
 This internal skeleton is an adaptation for
efficient locomotion, as was the notochord.
 Class Agnatha
 Agnaths are primitive fishes with a fibrous skeleton and an eel-like body.
 They lack a jaw as well as the scales and paired fins we usually associate with
fish.
 Many species are parasitic (they attach to the outer surface of a fish with their
sucker-like mouth). Rasping teeth (arranged in a whorl) cut into the host.
 The lamprey then sucks blood from the wound (a fish hickey?).
 When it is finished its bloodmeal, the fish is released.
 The injured fish usually dies from blood loss or infection.
 Although partially under control, the marine lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) has
had a devastating effect on the fishing industry in the Great Lakes region.
 Note the single median nostril at the anterior end (between the eyes) and the
seven pairs of gill apertures (making it look somewhat like an old Buick).
 While the lamprey may be either marine or freshwater, hagfish are exclusively
marine.
 Unlike the lamprey, they are scavengers and are never parasitic.
 A hagfish's eyes are degenerate and its mouth is surrounded by eight tentacles.
 There may be five to 15 pairs of gill apertures, depending on the species.
 Ammocoete larva (Lamprey).
Ammocoete larvae share many characteristics with their invertebrate ancestors.
 Class AGNATHA
90 species
 a possibly paraphyletic group of jawless fishes,
including the first vertebrates
 Living forms are elongate, scaleless, slimy
parasites and scavengers - include
– Myxinoidea: the hagfish
– Petromyzontia: lampreys, parasitic fish that suck
nutrients from circulatory system of host fish
 Subphylum Vertebrata,
Gnathostomes, Class Placodermi
 Gnathostomes

 vertebrates with jaws that are modified gill

supports
 includes the cartilaginous fish, bony fish,
and tetrapods
 Class CHONDRICHTHYES
 950 species
 the cartilaginous fish
 Subclass Elasmobranchii---sharks,
rays, skates
 Subclass Holocephali---ratfish
(chimaeras)
 Chondrichthyes

 GNATHOSTOMATA
 Characteristics
– internal jaws (palatoquadrate, Meckel's cartilage) are present.
– paired appendages (paired pectoral and pelvic fins) supported by
an internal skeleton provide more efficient locomotion
– three semicircular canals
– teeth - modified dermal scales
– more proficient predators than the jawless fish
 Taxa
– the jawed vertebrates include the extinct ,armored Placoderms,
the cartilaginous fish, and the bony fish (including the
tetrapods).
– Phylogenetic relationships of the jawed fishes
 Characteristics

 internal skeleton is composed of cartilage, which may be

prismaticly calcified
 placoid scales ( a bone-like tissue is present at base of
placoid scales)
 second gill arch (hyoid) involved in jaw suspension
 swim bladder or lung absent; have oil filled liver to
provide neutral buoyancy [sharks are slightly negatively
buoyant-will sink]
 claspers (modified pelvic fins) present in males [internal
fertilization]
 persistent notochord
 intestine with spiral valve
 ventral mouth
 replacement teeth rows
 Taxa

 living chondrichthyans include sharks,

skates, rays, and the ratfish.
 approximately 815 species
 Subclass Elasmobranchii
 Superorder NEOSELACHII
 the dominant Mesozoic and Cenozoic
elasmobranchs
 sharks, skates, rays
 carnivores and scavengers; largest forms
are filter feeders
 Characteristics

 advanced forms with hyostylic jaw support (hyomandibular is a

mobile connection between braincase and palatoquadrate;
postorbital connection lost). Mouth frequently opens ventrally.
 placoid scales are modified to form teeth
 5-7 pairs of gill slits with separate external openings and a spiracle
 vertebral centra strongly calcified; notochord constricted except
intervertebrally
 enlarged nasal capsules: chemoreception. sensitive to one part in 10
billion; widely spaced nostrils in hammerheads may increase
sensitivity for locating prey
 neuromast organs: mechanoreceptors
 Ampullae of Lorenzini electroreception for detection of prey,
possibly for navigation
 heterocercal tail (may or may not provide lift)
 ORDER SQUALOMORPHA

 Squalus, the spiny dogfish, is

characteristic
 also includes cookie-cutter sharks
 fin spines present
 anal fin absent
 spiracle large
 body rounded
 ORDER GALEOMORPHA
 includes nurse, tiger, blue, white sharks,
etc., and basking shark, megamouth, and
 active sharks, fusiform bodies
 spiracle small or absent; mainly
predaceous
 high brain size to body ratio
ORDER BATOIDEA - skates and rays
 most diverse elasmobranchs: 476 extant species
 dorsoventrally-flattened bottom dwellers
 large pectoral fins; dorsal fins reduced to
absent; caudal fin reduced
 large dorsal spiracle
 external gill openings are on the ventral side of
the body; water (for breathing) is taken through
the large spiracle on the dorsal side
 teeth usually flattened and united to form a
pavement for crushing mollusks; also feed on
crustaceans, and occasionally, fish.
 SUBCLASS HOLOCEPHALI

Characteristics :
 gills close behind braincase (primitive)
 jaw support autostylic (holostylic)
 dentition a small number of large,
continuously growing tooth plates
 fin structures similar to sharks
 Characteristics

 Fleshy operculum covers four gill slits

 Skin naked; placoid denticles present primitively,
absent in Recent forms
 No spiracle
 flattened, grinding teeth; eat seaweed, mollusks,
echinoderms, crustaceans, and other small fish;
rabbit fish has nipping teeth
 tail a narrow whip in recent genera
 claspers on pelvic fins and forehead
 recent forms marine
 Class OSTEICHTHYES
 27,000 species
 bony fishes
 skeleton contains bone
 single external gill opening covered with operculum
 swim bladder or lung

 Subclass Actinopterygii
 ray-finned fish
 most fish (most vertebrates)

 Subclass Sarcopterygii
 fleshy-finned fishes
 lungfish and coelacanth
 fleshy finned fish gave rise to amphibians in the Devonian
Class OSTEICHTHYES
 Class AMPHIBIA
 5,500 species
 Amphibians today include salamanders,
toads and frogs (the Lissamphibia)
 Paleozoic amphibians gave rise to the
amniotes
 Class AMPHIBIA
 Order Gymnophiona (Apoda)---Caecilians
 elongate bodies, limbless, scales in annular folds
of skin
 Order Caudata (Urodela)---salamanders
 tailed, usually with two pairs of limbs
 Order Anura (Salienta)---frogs and toads
 tailless, elongate hindlimbs, head and trunk
fused
 SUBCLASS LISSAMPHIBIA

Pseudotriton montanus, the Gulf Coast mud salamander

 Derived Characteristics

 single element vertebral centrum

 bicusped, pedicellate teeth (uncalcified zone at
base)
 skull table bones reduced
 moist, scaleless (liss = smooth), vascular skin
for respiration
 mucous glands keep the skin moist
 poison glands are present in the skin
 Other Characteristics

 Ectotherms
 Amphibians shed eggs in water for external fertilization (not fully
adapted to land)
 Eggs first evolve as aquatic larvae with external gills, then undergo
metamorphosis to emerge from water as adults
 They have thin skin (needed gas exchange), thus in danger of
desiccation if removed from a moist/wet environment
 Amphibians gave rise to amniotes during the Pennsylvanian Period
 All living amphibians are carnivorous; will eat anything they catch;
no morphological specializations related to diet.
 Amphibian populations are undergoing dramatic declines, which has
been attributed to ultraviolet radiation, environmental toxins,
etc. Parasites have been identified as the cause of deformities in
frogs.
 Classification
 The 5500 species of amphibians are
grouped into 3 orders:
 Salamanders (order Caudata or Urodela)
 Frogs and toads (order Anura or Salientia)
 The secretive, earthworm-like tropical
caecilians (order Gymnophiona or Apoda)
- limbless amphibians.
ORDER URODELA [CAUDATA]

Ambystoma tigrinum
 Characters
 least specialized of all living amphibians
 elongate body
 simple primitive limbs, set at right angles to body; most
have 4 limbs but a few aquatic species have only 2
limbs.
 locomotion similar to that of primitive tetrapods--lateral
bending (fishlike) plus leg movement
 aquatic, semi-aquatic, terrestrial
 paedomorphosis is common in aquatic salamanders
 terrestrial salamanders live in moist places under stones
and rotten logs, usually not far from water
 Diet

 Most salamanders are carnivorous preying

on worms, small arthropods, and small
mollusks; most eat only things that are
moving.
 food is rich in proteins; therefore, they do
not store much fat or glycogen
 Size

 Most of them are small.

 The common North America salamanders
are less than 15 cm long.
 Some aquatic species are rather large.
Cryptobranchus (hell bender) is 60 cm;
 The Japanese giant salamander reaches
lengths > 1.5 meters.
 Respiration

 all salamanders hatch with external gills, but

during development, they are lost in all except
aquatic forms or in some species which do not
undergo complete metamorphosis.
 most terrestrial salamanders have well-
developed, but simple lungs.
 salamanders lack ribs
 amphibians use positive pressure from
hypobranchial apparatus of buccal pump to force
air into lungs
 Cutaneous respiration

 The skin contains an extensive vascular network

of capillaries which allow for gas exchange to
take place just below the epidermis.
 Cutaneous respiration is facilitated by pumping
air in and out of the mouth where further
respiratory gas exchange can take place.
 The buccal (mouth) cavity has a highly
vascularized membrane system that
supplements cutaneous respiration in lungless,
gill-less salamanders
 Family Plethodontidae

Plethodon glutinosus, Northern Slimy Salamander

 Characteristic
 265 species of lungless aquatic and terrestrial
salamanders
 lungs were lost in forms inhabiting cool, swift
running streams; disadvantage of too much
buoyancy
 Small size of terrestrial species high
surface/volume ratio provides adequate surface
for gaseous exchange to take place across the
skin.
 absence of lung and hypobranchial apparatus
leaves room for a large protrusible tongue;
especially well-developed in the bolitoglossines
 Breeding
 some aquatic salamanders (Cryptobranchidae, Hynobiidae, possibly
Sirenidae) use external fertilization
 Most salamanders use internal fertilization. The female picks up a
packet of sperm (spermatophore [fig 10-141]) usually deposited by
the male on the substrate.
 aquatic species lay their fertilized eggs in small, group-like clusters
in the water. Larvae have external gills and a fin-like tail
 Terrestrial species lay masses of eggs under logs or in holes of soft
dirt. Many species remain near eggs to guard them. direct
development--bypass the aquatic larval stage and hatch as
miniature adults.
 most complex life cycle in some American newts. Often have a
terrestrial stage (toxic red eft stage) interposed between the aquatic
larvae and the secondarily aquatic, breeding adults (e.g.,
Notophthalmus viridescens: Family Salamandridae)
 ORDER ANURA
Frogs and toads
 27 families [table 10.3] and 4900 species
of tailless amphibians
 cosmopolitan (except Antarctica)
 Jurassic - Recent
 Characters

 specializations for jumping [fig 10-8]

 long hind limbs and toes
– proximal bones of tarsus elongate.
 Pelvic girdle enlarged, strengthened and anchored to
vertebral column
 ilium elongate
 the caudal vertebra are fused into a solid rod, the
urostyle
 Vertebral column short and inflexible [9 or fewer (usually
5) pre-sacral vertebrae]--lack a visible neck
 ribs very reduced, usually fused to the vertebrae
 Habits and Habitats

 Body form and Ecological specializations

– locomotor modes [fig 10-8]: forelimb length vs. hind limb length
in walkers, hoppers, burrowers, jumpers, and swimmers
– body form reflects specializations for different habitats [fig 10-8]
– "Frog" refers to several families of mainly aquatic anurans with
aquatic specializations such as webbing on the feet
– The term toad is used rather loosely to refer to frogs and toads
that tend to spend more of their life cycle in terrestrial
habitats. "Toad" refers to several families of terrestrial
anurans. Toads differ from frogs in that toads have
 shorter fore- and hind limbs, stout, compact bodies, thicker skin
 usually, skin is covered with prominent "warts" or "bumps (overall
rough appearance and texture) etc.
 little or no webbing on feet
 Size
– The largest frog is the West African Gigantorana
goliath. > 30 cm body length, weighs 7.5 pounds;
has been known to eat rats and even ducks.
– The smallest frog recorded is approx. 1 cm long
(smaller than a dime); found in Cuba.
– Largest American frog is the bullfrog (Rana
catesbiana) (20 cm body length)
 Defense:
– poison glands in non-sedentary frogs
 Feeding
– many have sticky tongues that can be flipped out
 Reproduction
– The typical frog life cycle:
 amplexus for hours to days external fertilization
masses of fertilized eggs in the water hatching
limbless, gill-bearing tadpole larvae: feed and
grow transformation (metamorphosis) hind legs
appear and gradually lengthen. The tail shortens;
larval teeth are lost; gills are replaced by lungs.
Eyelids develop and forelegs emerge. In a matter
of weeks or less the aquatic tadpoles has
completed its metamorphosis to an adult frog.
– internal fertilization in some via cloacae--Ascaphis
truei and others that lay eggs on land
 Other
 arboreal frogs eggs laid over water-tadpoles drop into water
[Centrolenella]
 eggs in a nest of foam that floats on the water [Physalaemus]
 tadpoles carried by adult--male Rhinoderma darwini [Darwin's
frog] pick up eggs carry tadpoles in vocal pouch
 tadpoles of poison dart frogs carried on back of adult male
[Phylobates] or female [Colostheus]; in pouch on back of female
Flectnotus [marsupial frog]
 Hemiphractus a hylid carries eggs on its back
 Pipa [Surinam toad]: fertilized eggs sink into brooding pouches in
the softened skin of female
 tadpoles are carried in stomach of Australian Rheobatrachus
 tree frog eggs in bromeliads
 Males of two microhylid species transport their offspring on their
backs. "They travel up to 55 meters over nine days, dropping the
fully formed baby frogs -these frogs don’t go through a tadpole
stage - at different spots along the journey. This behavior may
avoid inbreeding and create less competition for the next
generation."
Classification
 Ranidae - frogs
Rana berlandieri

– Most abundant and successful of the frogs are of

the genus Rana (Gr. for frog). Found all over the
temperate and tropical regions of the world except
New Zealand, many islands, and southern regions
of South America.
– Usually found near water. Some, such as the wood
frog spend most of their time in on damp forest
floors and often some distance from water. It
returns to water only to breed in early spring.
Bullfrogs and green frogs are usually found in or
near permanent water or swampy regions.
 Hylidae - the tree frogs

– Toe pads for climbing

– mucous glands produce sticky, long chain
polymers--wet adhesion enables frogs to
stick to surfaces

Hyla cinerea
 Bufonidae - toads
– paratoid gland present
– Poisonous skin secretion,
– some species can kill dogs
– e.g., Bufo alvarius

Bufo marinus
 Pelobatidae
– Spadefoot toads

Scaphiopus
 Other families
 Rhinophrynidae
– Rhynophrynus dorsalis Mexican burrowing frog
– Weak hind legs, doesn't hop
– Burrows in termite nests, rotten logs
– Usually collected at ponds when breeding.
– Male calls while floating in middle of pond
 Pipidae
– Africa and S. America, Aquatic
– examples: Suriname toad Pipa pipa, African clawed frog, Xenopus
 Dendrobatidae
– Arrow-poison frog--Neotropical
 Ex. Dendrobates tinctorius Dye frog
 ORDER GYMNOPHIONA
[APODA]
 caecilians
– members of an obscure order called
Gymnophiona (naked snake). 160 species of
worm-like amphibians.
– Found in tropical forests of South America
(primarily), Africa, and south-east Asia.

Ichthyophis bannanicus
 Characters

 limbless
– an early Jurassic caecilian possesses limbs
 mostly burrowing species, some aquatic
 solidly built skull
 long, slender--body up to 200 vertebra
 small dermal scales
 no postanal tail
 many species are blind as adults, have the name
caecilians (caecus, blind). Because they are burrowers,
the eyes are replaced by specialized sensory tentacles on
the snout. Very rarely seen due to their burrowing
nature.
 Class REPTILIA
 7,800 species
 Turtles, crocodiles, lizards, snakes, etc.
 Reptile lungs are efficient, don't use skin
for gas exchange
 They have internal fertilization and
produce eggs with leathery shells
 Class REPTILIA
 Reptiles have acquired several advances over
amphibians that have allowed them to move successfully
into terrestrial habitats.
 Their skin, for example, is more heavily cornified and is
protected with surface scales that are impervious to
water.
 To help conserve water the kidney produces a
concentrated urine, and the volume has been reduced.
Since reptiles have internal fertilization, water isn't even
needed for mating.
 The eggs have undergone extensive modification
compared to those of amphibians and are termed
cleidoic eggs.
 Class REPTILIA
 Reptiles have three extraembryonic membranes the chorion, amnion
and allantois. The amnion is a fluid-filled sac that encloses the
embryo, providing it with its own private pond. The chorion and
allantois are vascularized membranes that lie against the shell. The
allantois develops as an outgrowth of the hindgut.
 It helps with respiration and serves as a Johnny-on-the-spot for the
developing embryo. The chorion is the outermost extraembryonic
membrane and is mainly concerned with respiration. These
membranes are surrounded by albumen, and then a shell. The egg
shell is porous and either leathery or limy.
 This adaptation allows respiration through the shell without losing
too much water.
 On the down side, most reptile eggs become waterlogged if exposed
to water for too long.
 Females usually lay their eggs, but some lizards and snakes retain
them for internal development.
 Class REPTILIA
 To keep up with their greater activity there are changes in
reptiles' pelvic and pectoral girdles to make them strong
 Some even have four-chambered hearts with separate
pulmonary and systemic circulations.
 Respiration is by lungs, although cloacal respiration can act
as an auxiliary system in some aquatic turtles.
 Many reptiles adjust their body temperature by behavioral
mechanisms, basking in the sun to warm up in the morning
and then seeking shelter in the heat of the day.
 Physiological mechanisms sometimes aid in this behavioral
thermoregulation: Chromatophores can open to darken the
skin so that it absorbs more heat, and blood flow to the skin
can be regulated.
 Class REPTILIA
 The first reptiles were amphibian-like
beasts called cotylosaurs appeared during
the Carboniferous period (about 350
million years before present).
 Turtles are most similar to the cotylosaurs
(although the latter did not have shells)
and are placed in the same subclass.
 A turtle’s body is covered on the dorsal
surface by a bony shell with horny plates
 Class REPTILIA
 Alligators, have jaws that house teeth that are
all alike, albeit of differing size (homodont
dentition).
 The conical the codont teeth are set in sockets
called alveoli in the premaxillae, and dentary
(lower jaw).
 The alligator skull has a large number of cranial
bones and in this respect is more primitive than
that of the frog (even though reptiles evolved
after the amphibians).
 Class REPTILIA
 A reptile's scales are very different in structure from that of fish.
 The outer layer of skin is the thick stratum corneum (thick layers of
dead, keratin-filled cornified cells).
 These cells are organized into horny scales covering the entire
outer surface.
 The scales are important in protecting the animal from abrasion and
drying out.
 The plates making up the shell of turtles are composed of a similar
material.
 Hinges between the scales permit flexible movements.
 The lower epidermis, like that of amphibians, is the stratum
germinativum (it produces the upper cell layers).
 Unlike the amphibians, there are few skin glands.
 Class AVES
 9,100 species
 Characteristics
– Birds have internal fertilization and lay hard-shelled
eggs
– Endotherms
– Nearly every anatomical feature is related to ability to
fly
 The only animals with feathers (modified reptilian scales)
– Many types of birds exist:
 flightless; web footed; divers; waders; vegetarian; etc
 Class AVES
 Birds are endothermic (warm-blooded)
vertebrates with feathers.
 Their anterior limbs are modified as wings for
flight, while the posterior pair is adapted for
walking, swimming, or perching.
 Other adaptations related to flight include
changes in the skeletal, respiratory, circulatory,
reproductive, digestive, and excretory systems.
 Class AVES
 The first birds arose from saurishian dinosaurs
during the Jurassic (about 180 million years
before present).
 Today's birds still retain many reptilian
characteristics such as similarities in behavior,
skull structure, and scales on their beak, legs,
and feet. Birds have been incredibly successful
(among the chordates, they are outnumbered
only by the bony fish).
 Subclass Archaeornithes
The Archaeornithes, are represented by a single extinct
species (Archaeopteryx). The first Archaeopteryx
specimen was discovered during the nineteenth century.
 It was about the size of a crow, had a long reptilian tail,
thecodont teeth, and a reptilian skull with no beak. It
had three fingers on its wings, each bearing a claw.
Because of its small sternum and flexible trunk, it's
unlikely that Archaeopteryx was a strong flier.
 Its characteristics are so reptilian that, were it not for
the feathers fossilized with the specimen, it would not be
recognizable as a potential ancestor of birds. Protoavis, a
smaller animal discovered in 1986, may be more closely
allied to today's birds).
Subclass Archaeornithes

Archaeopteryx
 Subclass Neornithes
 All birds other than Archaeopteryx belong to the subclass
Neornithes.
 While most neornithes fly, ratites can not. Examples of
living ratites include emus, rheas, ostriches, and
penguins.
 Neornithes that fly are carinates (they have a large
carina).
 The largest living carinate is the Andean condor, with a
wing span of about 3 meters.
 The condor, by no means, represents a limit on size for
birds (the giant Teratorn had a wingspan of 8 meters).
 Modifications Related to Flight.
 The long bones are thin and slender.
 Likewise, the skull is thin.
 Teeth have been lost and replaced by a light beak.
 Many bones lost their central marrow and are now hollow and
porous.
 The reduction in the number of bones of the wrist.
 The sternum has broadened into a wide keel to provide a base
for attachment of wing musculature. Many bones are fused.
 Those of the pelvis are fused to the lower vertebrae of the
back, while the ribs are joined to the vertebrae and sternum.
 This consolidation insures that birds don't have to expend
muscular energy to hold their lower body straight during flight.
Subclass Neornithes
 Subclass Neornithes
 The lungs are directly attached to the ribs and
have air sacs that extend into the bones.
 Both of these attributes raise ventilation
efficiency to keep up with their increased
metabolic needs.
 They have no urinary bladder and a short large
intestine (to cut back on weight).
 The cerebral hemispheres and cerebellum show
a dramatic increase in size over the reptiles to
permit more complex behaviors and coordination
needed for flight.
 Avian Feathers and Skin
 Feathers are cornified epidermal appendages that are probably related to
scales. They are used for thermoregulation, communication, and as a flight
surface.
 There are three varieties of feathers: contour feathers, down feathers
(plumules), and plumes (hairlike feathers).
 The main axis of the feather is divided into a hollow calamus that inserts
into the animal's skin at a feather follicle and a rachis flattened is attached
to the shaft and makes up the main flight surface.
 The vane is built from numerous barbules.
 The barbules attach to hooklets on adjacent barbs to hold together the
vanelike structure of the feather.
 If the barbs become separated, the bird zips them back together by
preening.
 Contour feathers that form the flight surfaces are called flight feathers.
 Down feathers provide excellent insulation because numerous fluffy barbs
at the quill tip trap insulating air.
 Avian Feathers and Skin
 Feather development begins when mesodermal tissue in
the dermis produces a pimply feather primordium.
 The feather primordium elongates toward the epidermis,
forming a feather follicle.
 Cells at the base of the follicle then begin to grow
forming a feather sheath within which is formed an
immature feather.
 The feather sheath and immature feather together make
up a pin feather.
 Eventually, the feather sheath splits open and releases
the barbs, and then the remainder of the feather.
 Class MAMMALIA
 4,800 species
 mammals evolved in the late Triassic, the time dinosaurs
first appeared.
 mammals diversified greatly following the extinction of
the dinosaurs during the Cenozoic
 Characteristics
– hair - protection from heat loss
– mammary glands
– differentiated teeth
– endotherms; 4 chambered heart; etc.
– Greatest size range
 pigmy shrew to blue whale
 Characteristics
 Members of the class Mammalia possess both hair and mammary
glands.
 Their integument is complex and has many glands used for a variety of
purposes: thermoregulation and excretion (sweat glands),
communication (scent glands), care of the hair and skin (sebaceous oil
glands), and for feeding of the young (mammary glands).
 They are thermic and have relatively high rates of metabolism. In
keeping with their higher metabolic rates, adaptations for efficient
feeding include heterodont teeth in most species and a secondarypalate
to separate the respiratory and food passages (so they can breathe and
chew at the same time).
 The circulatory systems are efficient, and they have a four-chambered
heart with separate pulmonary and systemic circulations. Their brains
are highly developed, fertilization is internal, and most have placental
attachment of the young.
 Subclass Theria
 Most living mammals belong to the
subclass Theria (placental mammals) and
are thought to have developed from
mammallike reptiles called therapsids
during the Mesozoic (about 180 million
years ago).
 The placentals are extremely diverse,
occupying all habitable environments on
earth.
 Subclass Prototheria
 Members of the subclass Prototheria are so different from placentals that
they may have developed from a different theriapsid species.
 They are represented today by only a single order, Monotreme (egg-laying
mammals).
 Today's monotremes are found in Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea.
 The only living monotremes are the duckbill platypus and echidna (spiny
anteater).
 Monotremes have several primitive characteristics: They lack teeth as
adults, the braincase and other skeletal elements are reptilian in structure,
they have a single ventral orifice (connected to a cloaca), and they are
oviparous.
 Although they are homothermous, their body temperature is maintained
only a few degrees above the ambient temperature.
 In these ways they are reptilian in their structure, reproduction, and
physiology. Nonetheless, monotremes do possess hair and feed their young
milk, so they do qualify as mammals.
 Subclass Theria,
Infraclass Metatheria
 Metatherians are the marsupial mammals (kangaroos, koalas,
opossums, Tasmanian wolves, and wombats).
 Like the placental mammals (superclass Eutheria), marsupials start
their lives attached by a placenta to the maternal circulation.
 Although the embryo and maternal circulation do not mix, the
developing young receive nutrients and discharge metabolic wastes
through the placenta.
 Marsupial placental development, however is short-lived; and
following their birth the embryos attach to a nipple within a skin
pouch (marsupium) where they continue their development.
 The most common American opossum is Didelphis virginiana. They
are nocturnal in their habits and are often found in association with
humans.
 Subclass Theria,
Infraclass Eutheria
 Eutherian mammals, including yourself, are placental beasts and belong to
the infraclass Eutheria.
 Among the lower vertebrates the teeth are simple in structure and usually
similar in shape.
 Mammals, however, have teeth adapted to different food-processing
functions.
 These teeth are classified from front to back as incisors, canines, premolars,
and molars. Incisors are usually small spindle-shaped teeth used for cutting,
chopping, and picking up food (although in rodents they are greatly
enlarged). Canines are sharp conical teeth useful for seizing prey and
tearing flesh. The development of canine teeth varies with the diet of the
animal. They are usually poorly developed or absent in herbivores and are
especially well developed in carnivorous mammals. Sometimes there is
variation according to sex (males having larger canines), while in other
species they grow to become premolars and molars are collectively known
as cheek teeth. Premolars are often used to puncture food while the
broader molars are involved in crushing and grinding food. Depending on
the diet, the premolar teeth may broaden to look much like the molars. The
occlusion between the upper and lower cheek teeth forms efficient surfaces
between which food can be cut, crushed, or torn according to their
structure.
 Subclass Theria,
Infraclass Eutheria
 The number and arrangement of the teeth are important in the
classification of mammals. A convenient way of expressing this arrangement
is through a dental formula that depicts the number of teeth in each half
jaw. For the primitive condition, the upper jaw has three incisors, one
canine (fang), four premolars, and three molars. The lower jaw has the
same arrangement. Because of this ancestral arrangement, mammals
usually have 44 teeth at most. However, because of secondary
modifications some species have no teeth (monotremes) while others have
several hundred (dolphins). This primitive arrangement is modified to one
degree or another amomg and within the various orders.
 Among the carnivores, all teeth are represented. Using dogs as an example,
they differ from the primitive condition only in a missing molar on the upper
jaw. For carnivores, the important aspect of these dental formulae is that all
four types of teeth are represented.
 The structure of the teeth is also important in classification of mammals,
but this aspect of taxonomy is more complicated and will not be covered
here. It may seem terribly superficial to classify mammalian orders based
on tooth structure, but since the teeth are related to feeding, they are
representative of other differences in anatomy and physiology.
 Order Carnivora
 Carnivores are predatory mammals with clawed
feet and teeth adapted for cutting flesh although
some carnivores have secondarily taken on an
omnivorous habit).
 Carnivores are among the brightest and
strongest of animals.
 Examples of carnivores include badgers, bears,
foxes, otters, raccoons, skunks, weasels,and
wolves.
 Order Primates
 Members of this order are mainly arboreal
(living in trees), although some, like
ourselves, have moved to the ground.
 They have five digits on their front and
hind legs, usually adorned with nails,
rather than claws.
 They include such beasts as apes,
gibbons, lemurs, monkeys, tree shrews,
and humans.
 Order Rodentia
 This is a very successful order since nearly half of living
mammalian species are classified as rodents. All rodents
have large chisellike incisors and lack canines and
premolars.
 Examples of rodents include beavers, lemmings,
marmots, mice, prairie dogs, rats, squirrels, and voles.
 The dental structure of all rodents is similar. They have
large incisors, and the major differences are in the
grinding surfaces of the molars.
 The lower incisors continuously grow and must be
trimmed by gnawing.
 Order Lagomorpha

 Rabbits, hares, and pikas, with their chisellike

teeth, look superficially like rodents (with which
they were once classified).
 Rabbits and hares differ only slightly in their
anatomy, but while rabbits are born blind,
naked, and helpless, hares are furred and active.
 Rabbits tend to live in burrows, while hares
spend most of their time above ground. While
Peter is most certainly a rabbit, Bugs appears to
be a hare (not a bunny).
 Order Insectivora
 These are the insect-eating mammals such as
shrews, moles, and hedgehogs (they also will
feed on any small beast including crustaceans
and worms).
 They have long snouts and primitive dentition.
 Most are terrestrial and spend much of their
lives underground, although a few are
semiaquatic.
 Insectivores are thought to be the most
primitive of the present-day mammalian orders.
 Order Chiroptera
 Chiropterans (bats) are the only true flying mammals (flying
squirrels, lemurs, and phalangers only glide).
 Their forelimbs are modified with elongated second to fifth digits to
support a web of skin that extends over the forearm to the body,
hindlegs, and tail.
 The thumb is short and armed with a claw that they can use to
grasp and climb on various surfaces.
 Most are nocturnal insectivores, but some feed on fruit or flower
nectar ("flying foxes").
 All navigate by echolocation, but few are "blind as a bat" (their
vision is usually as good as a rat's). And yes, Virginia, there are
vampire bats.
 The upper incisors of vampire bats are large and sharp. These are
used along with the canines to bite a triangular patch of skin from
their prey so they can suck out the blood.
 Order Artiodactyla
 This order contains medium-to large-sized even-
toed mammals (most have two toes).
 Many have horns, and their toes are protected
by a hoof.
 Most are ruminants (they chew the cud to aid in
digestion of cellulose).
 The order includes beasts such as antelopes,
camels, deer, elk, goats, hippos, llamas, oxen,
sheep, and swine.
 Order Perissodactyla
 This order is composed of the odd-toed
mammals such as horses, zebras, and
rhinos.
 They have one to three toes covered with
a hoof.
 Their teeth are well adapted for chewing.
 Order Edentata
 Members of this order include anteaters,
armadillos, sloths and armadillos.
 Armadillos are armor-plated on their head
and dorsal body surfaces and when
threatened, most can roll into a tight ball
to protect their soft belly.
 They are burrowers that hunt by night for
small vertebrates, earthworms, and other
soil organisms.
 Order Pholidota
 order Pholidota (scaly anteaters or
pangolins found in tropical Africa and
Asia).
 Pangolins have horny scales covering their
bodies and forelimbs armed with powerful
claws, which they use for digging into
termite mounds.
 order Pinnipedia
 Sea lions, seals, and walruses belong to
the order Pinnipedia.
 All pinnipeds are marine creatures feeding
mainly on fish.
 Order Cetacea
 Other marine mammals include the order
Cetacea.
 Among the cetaceans, toothed whales
(dolphins, porpoises, and sperm whales)
survive by feeding on fish, squid, and the
like, while the larger baleen whales (right,
blue, and gray whales) filter plankton from
the water.
 Seals Amphibians
Mammals
Birds

Fish

Rodents

Terimakasih
Marsupials

Primates
Reptiles Whales and Dolphins