SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

• Reproduction – process of producing new individuals from living organisms

• The importance of reproduction:
• To increase the number of individuals or offspring of the same species
• To ensure that animal and plant species do not become extinct
• There are two types of reproduction:
• Sexual reproduction
• Asexual reproduction
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• Involves the fusion of sex cells (gametes) of
two parents, a male parent, and a female
parent.
• Fertilisation – the fusion of nuclei of male
gametes and female gametes. Fertilisation
results in the formation of a zygote
• the zygote undergoes several cell divisions
before a new individual is formed.
• The fusion of genetic materials from the two
parents results in a new individuals with
variations .
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• Variation – the difference between individuals of the
same species
• There are two types of fertilization :
• External fertilization
• Internal fertilization
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INTERNAL AND
EXTERNAL FERTILISATION
Internal fertilisation
The fusion of nuclei of the male and
female gamete occurs inside the
body of the female
Occurs in mammals, reptiles, birds
and insects
Advantage:
The ovum, zygote and embryo are
safely situated in the female’s body
External fertilisation
The fusion of nuclei of the male and
female gamete occurs outside the
body of the female
Occurs in most aquatic animals like
frogs, fishes and toads
Disadvantage:
A lot of gametes need to be
produced. Probability of gametes die
before fertilisation occurs is very
high
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• Asexual reproduction- involves only one parent. It does not involve
gametes.
• The new individual formed is genetically identical to the parent. No
variation in the offspring produced.
• Advantage: only needs one individual to reproduce
• Disadvantage: no variation of characteristics in the new individuals
• Occurs in some plants and lower class animals : hydra, amoeba and
paramecium
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Vegetative
reproduction Regeneration

Binary
Budding Spore
fission formation
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION- BINARY FISSION
• Mature cell divides into two daughter
cells
• The nucleus divides first, followed by
the cytoplasm
• Examples of organisms:
• Bacteria
• Amoeba
• paramecium
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION – VEGETATIVE
REPRODUCTION
• Vegetative reproduction is a form of asexual reproduction in plants that relies on
structures of the parent plant.
• Vegetative parts – the structure where the new plant arises from the part of the
parent plant
• Leaves, underground stems (rhizomes, bulbs, corms, tubers) and suckers
• Does not involve the production of seeds or spores.
• Examples: ginger, onion, banana, potato

STEMS LEAVES ROOTS

VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION - STEMS
A. Bulb
i. A short stem with fleshy leaves or leaf bases. The leaves often function as
food storage.
ii. New shoots arise from buds in the axils of the fleshy leaves.
VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION - STEMS
A. Corm
i. A short, vertical, swollen
underground stem that
serves as a storage organ
used by plants to survive
adverse conditions.
ii. New shoots form from buds
located on the top of the
corm.
VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION - STEM
A. Runner
i. A stem that grows horizontally on the surface of the soil.
ii. It develops new plants from the node tip
VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION - STEM
A. Rhizome
i. A horizontal underground
stem that produces shoots
and roots from its nodes.
VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION - STEM
A. Tuber
i. Underground stems that produce
new shoots from buds or “eyes”
ii. The tops or sides of the tuber
produce shoots that grow into
typical stems and leaves and the
under sides produce roots.
VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION - LEAVES
• Bryophyllum and Begonia are
plants that reproduce through
their leaves
• When the leaves drops to the
soil, the buds at the edge of the
leaf will grow into new plants
VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION - ROOTS
• Adventitious buds are formed on the root of the plant
• These buds detached from the root and develop into new plants
• Examples: carrots, turnips, and sweet potatoes
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION - BUDDING
• A bud grows out of the body of the parent organism
• A bud starts off as a swelling which grows to resemble the parent
• The mature bud then drops off to become a new individual
• Hydra, yeast
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION - REGENERATION
• The body of the parent
organism breaks into distinct
pieces or fragments.
• Each fragment has the ability
to grow and develop into a
completely new individual.
• Flatworm and starfish
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION- SPORE FORMATION
• Spores are produced in the
spore sacs (sporangium)
• When mature sporangium
bursts open, it releases spores.
• Spores germinate and grow into
new plants when they reach a
moist place
• Fungi, moss and ferns
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Involves 2 parents
Involves gametes
Involves fertilisation
Offspring shows variation – not
identical to the parents
Produces few offspring at one time
Humans, higher level of organisms
(fish, birds, amphibians, reptiles,
invertebrates) and flowering plants
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Involves only 1 parent
Does not involve gametes
Does not involve fertilisation
Offspring have same characteristics
as the parents
Produces large number of offspring
at one time
Occurs in lower level organisms such
as amoeba, hydra and paramecium
SELF ASSESS 4.1
1. State two differences between the sexual reproduction and asexual
reproduction.
2. State one disadvantage of external fertilisation
3. Give one example of organism that carries out asexual reproduction
through:
1.Binary fission
2.Budding
3.Spore formation
4.regeneration
 4.2 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• Consists of:
• Scrotum
• Testes
• Sperm ducts
• Seminal vesicles
• Prostate gland
• Urethra
• penis
STRUCTURES, FUNCTIONS AND DESCRIPTION
• Testis – produces sperm and male sex
hormones
• Scrotum – a skin sac that holds and
protects the testes outside the body
• Sperm duct – a tube that transports sperms
from the testis to the urethra
• Seminal vesicle – store sperms and secrete
a sugar-rich fluid that provides sperms with
energy, which helps them to move. The
mixture of seminal fluid and sperms is
called semen.
STRUCTURES, FUNCTIONS AND DESCRIPTION
• Prostate gland – produces alkaline liquid
that is added to the semen during
ejaculation. The liquid protects the sperm
from acidic environment of the vagina,
thus aiding sperm motility and survival
• Urethra – a tube inside the penis that
carries urine and sperms in the semen. It
transport sperm and urine out of the body.
• Penis – an organ made up of soft tissues
and rich in blood vessels. It transfers
semen from the testes to the vagina
during sexual intercourse.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF SPERMS
• Sperm – male sex cells (male gamete) produced by the testis
• Smallest cell in the human body.
• Life span – less than 72 hours
• Made up of three parts:
• Head – contain nucleus which carries genetic materials to be passed
from the father to the offspring
• Neck (middle piece) – contains mitochondria which provide energy for
the sperm to swim
 Tail – enable the sperm to swim in the vagina, uterus, and up to the
fallopian tube for fertilisation
• Function : to fertilise an ovum to form a zygote
PUBERTY IN MALES
• Puberty – the stage when boys and girls become sexually matured.
• It is accompanied by physical, physiological and emotional changes.
• Example:
• Voice deepens
• Body becomes taller and heavier
• Hair grows on the face and body
• The testes mature and start producing sperms
• The emotions change: attracted to the opposite sex
SELF ASSESS 4.2
1. What is the name of male reproductive cells and where are they
produced?
2. State two functions of sperms
3. Name the parts of a sperm
4. a boy used to sing very well during his primary school days. Suddenly he
finds that his voice has become deeper and he cannot sing as well as
before. What is happening to him? What other changes may he
experienced?
4.3 THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• Consists of:
• Ovary
• Fallopian tube/ oviduct
• Uterus (womb)
• Cervix
• Vagina
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE PARTS IN
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• Ovary
• female reproductive organ
• Responsible in producing female gametes or
ova
• Produce female sex hormones
• Fallopian tube (oviduct)
• Connects the ovary to the uterus
• Collects the ovum released from the ovary and
carries it towards the uterus
• A site which fertilisation between male and
female gametes occurs
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE PARTS IN
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• Vagina (birth canal)
• A muscular tube where the s perms are
deposited by the penis during sexual
intercourse
• Widens during the birth of the baby
• Vulva
• The outer opening of the vagina
• Cervix
• The narrow neck of the uterus which dilates
during childbirth
• Secretes mucus which enables the sperm to
swim easily to meet the ovum
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE PARTS IN
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• Uterus
• Pear-shaped muscular organ with
thick walls and rich with blood
capillaries
• The place where a fertilised ovum is
implanted
• The place where the embryo
develops into a foetus and the foetus
grows during pregnancy
THE STRUCTURE OF THE OVUM
• The largest cell in human body
• The role of the ovum in
reproduction
• Carries genetic materials from the
mother in the nucleus
• During fertilisation, the nucleus of
the ovum combines with the
nucleus of the sperm, forming
zygote which develops into a new
offspring
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SPERM AND OVUM
Characteristics Sperm Ovum
Size 0.01 – 0.05 mm 0.12 mm
Place of production Testis Ovary
Mobility Able to move by itself Unable to move by itself
Number produced Millions in a day One released every 28
days
Lifespan Up to 72 hours Up to 24 hours
PUBERTY IN FEMALES
• Females usually reach puberty earlier than males (11 – 13 years old)
• Changes that occur in the body of females:
• Ovaries start to release mature ova and produce sex hormones
• Body becomes taller and heavier
• Breasts develop
• Hips become wider
• Hair begins to grow in the armpits and the pubic area
• Menstruation begins
• Emotional changes – becoming shy, being attracted to the opposite sex
SELF ASSESS 4.3
1. Where are the sex cells produced in the body of a woman?
2. Why is the human egg or ovum larger than the sperm?
3. Explain the function of the organs below:
1.Ovary
2.Fallopian tube
3.Uterus
4.4 THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

d. a.
Premenstrual Menstruation
phase phase

Menstrual
cycle

c. Fertile
phase b. Repair
phase
THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
• At birth – a girl has many unripe eggs in her ovaries, she starts to
ovulate at puberty
• At puberty – ova ripen at different times, when an ovum ripens and
matures, it is released from the ovary.
• Ovulation – the release of one mature ovum from one of the two ovaries
into the fallopian tube [FERTILE PHASE]
• On its journey to uterus, the ovum prepares itself for fertilisation.
• The lining of the uterine wall becomes thickerand has more blood
vessels. WHY DOES THIS HAPPEN?
THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
• No fertilisation – lining of the wall of the uterus and
blood vessels starts to break down
• Ovum + blood + lining of the uterine wall is discharged
through the vagina – menstruation
• One menstrual cycle lasts for about 28 days. (may
vary from 23 days to 40 days)
• Length of the cycle depends on:
• Mental condition
• Physical activity
• Emotional changes
• Nutrition of an individual
THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
• A woman may experience premenstrual
syndrome.
• Abdominal pain
• Emotional changes
• Headaches
• Lethargy
• Menopause – happens when women stop
menstruating at the age between 50 and
55 years old.
4.4 THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

d. a.
Premenstrual Menstruation
phase phase

Menstrual
cycle

c. Fertile
phase b. Repair
phase
MENSTRUATION PHASE
• day 1 – day 5
• Lining of the uterine wall together with the blood
vessels break down. The lining tissues and blood are
discharged as menstruation occurs.
REPAIR PHASE
• Day 6 – day 11
• Lining of the uterine wall builds up and becomes thicker and richer
in blood vessels
OVULATION PHASE
• Day 12 – day 16
• This is the fertile phase.
• Ovulation usually occurs on the 14th day
• The uterine wall and blood vessels continue to develop
PREMENSTRUAL PHASE
• Day 17 – day 28
• Uterine wall continues to thicken and becomes rich in blood vessels in
preparation for fertilisation
• Uterus is ready for implantation
• If fertilisation does not occur/ not successful, the lining of the uterus
starts to break down.
• Another cycle starts.
CONCLUSION OF MENSTRUAL CYCLE
Days in the menstrual cycle Phases in menstrual cycle
1–5 Menstruation phase
• Discharge of unfertilised egg,
uterine lining and blood
6 – 11 Repair phase
• rebuilding and thickening of the
uterine lining
12 – 16 Ovulation / fertile phase
• Release of ovum from the ovary
17 – 28 Premenstrual phase
• The uterine lining continues to
thicken by increasing blood
supply
SELF ASSESS 4.4
1. Can fertilisation take place during
menstruation? Explain your answer.
2. What can be found in the discharge
during menstruation?
3. State the events that take place during
the fertile phase.
4. What is the meaning of puberty?
4.5 FERTILISATION AND PREGNANCY
• During sexual intercourse (copulation), millions of sperms are released
from the penis into the vagina. However only about 100 sperms will
reach the ovum.
• Sperms’ journey :
• Swims with the helps of their tails from vagina  cervix  uterus 
fallopian tubes/ oviduct
• Lifespan : 72 hours
• If a mature ovum is present in fallopian tube, sperms will surround
the ovum.
Watch
video
4.5 FERTILISATION AND PREGNANCY
• Only one of the sperm will successfully penetrate the
membrane of the ovum.
• A membrane is formed immediately around the ovum,
preventing other sperms from entering the ovum.
• The nucleus in the head of the sperm then fuses with
the nucleus of the ovum.
• The fusion results in fertilisation, forming zygote.
• Once zygote is formed, the female becomes pregnant
and foetus will develop in her uterus.
DEVELOPMENT OF AN EMBRYO INTO A FOETUS
UNTIL BIRTH
DEVELOPMENT OF AN EMBRYO INTO A FOETUS
UNTIL BIRTH
• 4 stages:
• OVULATION
• a mature ovum is released into the oviduct/ fallopian tube
• FERTILISATION
• Fusion of the nuclei of a sperm and an ovum to form a zygote
• DEVELOPMENT OF THE ZYGOTE
• Zygote divides into two cells after 30 minutes, cells divide repeatedly
to form a ball of cells called the embryo.
• Embryo moves down the fallopian tube and enters the uterus.
(movement assisted by the rippling movements of the uterine wall
DEVELOPMENT OF AN EMBRYO INTO A FOETUS
UNTIL BIRTH
• IMPLANTATION
• After 7-8 days after fertilisation, the embryo implants/ attaches itself
into the thickened lining of the uterus
• It sinks into the soft tissues of the uterine wall – IMPLANTATION
DEVELOPMENT OF AN EMBRYO INTO A FOETUS
UNTIL BIRTH
•Result of fertilisation between male
Zygote and female gamete

•A ball of cells for two months

Embryo

•After two months, embryo develops

Foetus and resembles a human being

•Fully develop at birth

Baby
• Time taken: 40
weeks
DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO
• Embryo implanted in the uterine wall continues to grow inside a sac
(amnion sac). The foetus is surrounded by amniotic fluid.
• Embryo gets nutrients and oxygen from the blood vessels in the uterine
lining.
• Finger-like projections grow from the embryo into the lining of the uterus,
forming placenta.
• The embryo has now develop into foetus.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOETUS
• The foetus is joined by the umbilical chord to the placenta.
• Umbilical chord contains vein and artery.
• Vein carries blood rich in nutrients and oxygen from the placenta to
the foetus
• Artery carries waste products such as urea and carbon dioxide away
from the foetus to the placenta. These substances diffuse into the
mother’s blood.
• In the placenta, the foetus’ blood and the mother’s blood do not
mixed.
• Foetus also starts to move.
• When the foetus is fully formed at the end of the pregnancy, the foetus
rotates its body until the head is pointing towards the cervix.
THE BIRTH OF THE BABY
• At about 9 months, the baby is ready to be born.

Uterine muscle
contract very
Amnion sac strongly, these
Small breaks, contractions
contraction amniotic fluid push the baby
flows out out through the
cervix and the
vagina
SELF ASSESS 4.5
1. What is the function of the sac of amniotic
fluid surrounding the developing foetus?
2. Name the substances transported in the
placenta from
1.The foetus to the mother
2.The mother to the foetus
3. Trace the pathway of a sperm from
ejaculation until it meets an ovum.
4.6 THE IMPORTANCE OF PRENATAL CARE
• Pregnant mothers require a balanced diet.
• More energy needed: need to consume more food – 11 592 kJ
• Woman that is not pregnant need to consume less food – 9450 kJ

Nutrient Pregnant women Women that are

not pregnant
Protein (g) 102 70
Iron (mg) 15 10
Calcium (mg) 1000 – 1500 800
Vitamin 900 750
A(microgram)
Vitamin C (mg) 100 70
4.6 THE IMPORTANCE
OF PRENATAL CARE
• Besides taking nutritious food,
a pregnant woman should have
enough rest and sleep, avoid
taking drugs which are not
prescribed by doctor, do not
drink alcohol or smoke
cigarettes. These activities can
harm the foetus.
• Pregnant women who smoke
risk having :
• Smaller babies
• Stillborn babies
• Babies who are mentally and
physically retarded
• Miscarriages or premature
babies.
4.6 THE IMPORTANCE OF
PRENATAL CARE
• when carbon monoxide is
inhaled by a pregnant woman,
it will combine with
haemoglobin to form
carboxyhaemoglobin, which
means, less oxygen is
transported to the foetus and
may cause abnormal
development of the foetus’
brain.
4.6 THE IMPORTANCE OF
PRENATAL CARE
• Excessive alcohol will cause foetal
alcohol syndrome as the alcohol is
transported by the blood to the foetus.
• Alcohol slows down the development
of foetus, damages its brain, the
nervous system and heart.
4.6 THE IMPORTANCE OF PRENATAL CARE
Nutrients Sources Functions
Carbohydrates Rice, bread, For daily energy requirements
and fats potatoes, milk, and various activities of the
butter, cheese mother
Protein Chicken, beef, fish, For the growth of new cells in the
beans, milk, cheese foetus
Folic acid Broccoli, spinach, For the proper development of
hazelnuts, the nervous system in the foetus
groundnuts
Vitamin C Citrus fruits, For healthy skin of the foetus and
tomatoes, guava, the mother
vegetables
Calcium and Anchovies, cheese, For the formation of healthy,
phosphorus milk strong bones, and teeth in the
foetus
Iron Liver, red meat, tuna Formation of haemoglobin to
fish prevent anaemia in the mother
Fibre Cereals, vegetables, For easy bowel movement of the
fruits mother
SELF ASSESS 4.6
1. Explain why pregnant women are advised
to eat more vegetables and fresh fruits.
2. If a pregnant woman only takes
carbohydrates and fats, what are the
effects of this diet on:
1. The foetus
2. Herself?
3. What is the importance of iron to
pregnant mothers and what is the effect
of lack of iron on mothers?
4.7 THE IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN HUMAN
REPRODUCTION
• Main issues concerning human reproduction:
• Sterility
• Birth control
• Sterility – the inability to produce children
• Caused by the problems in reproductive system of the husband or the
wife.
CAUSES OF STERILITY
in female
• Defective reproductive organs
• Abnormal ovulation or inability to
ovulate
• Blocked fallopian tube
• Fertilised egg cant implant itself
in the uterine lining after
fertilisation
• Health problems such as diabetes
and hypertension
In male
• defective reproductive organs
such as the inability of the penis
to ejaculate sperms into the
vagina
• Low sperm count
• Deformed or weak sperms
• Inactive sperms which are unable
to swim to meet the ovum
METHODS TO OVERCOME STERILITY
• Nutrition
• consume nutritious food, abstain from smoking and drinking alcohol
• Drug treatment
• Take hormone pills or injections to enhance ovulation (female) or
increase the chances to produce more active sperms (male)
• Surgery
• Removal of growth tissues in the oviducts which cause blockage or
growth in the uterus which prevents implantation
METHODS TO OVERCOME STERILITY
• In vitro fertilisation (IVF)

A mature egg Implantation

The wife is
is transferred A sperm of the embryo
injected with a
into a glass fertilises the takes place
hormone to
dish egg in the and the
stimulate the
containing culture embryo
ovary to
nutrients and solution develops into
produce eggs
oxygen a foetus
BIRTH CONTROL OR CONTRACEPTION
• Birth control basically means preventing pregnancy by:
• Stopping the production of eggs (prevent ovulation)
• Stopping the sperms from reaching and fertilising the ovum
• Stopping the implantation of the embryo in the uterus
• Various methods of birth control:
• Contraceptive pills
• Condoms
• Spermicides
• Intrauterine contraceptive device (IUCD)
• The rhythm method (natural method)
• Vasectomy
• Ligation
CONTRACEPTIVE PILLS
• Taken by women every day, for 21 days after
menstruation
• Content : combination of hormones which
prevent ovulation.
• This method is 100% reliable if the woman
follows the doctor’s instructions correctly but
there are some side effects.
CONDOMS
• Thin rubber sheath used by men
• It is worn over the man’s erect penis before
intercourse to prevent sperms from entering the
vagina of the woman.
• Helps prevent infections of sexually transmitted
diseases such as AIDS, syphilis, gonorrhea
• It is reliable, and easy to obtain and to use.
SPERMICIDES
• Chemical substances in the form of foams, jellies or cream.
• The spermicide is introduced into the vagina of the woman before
intercourse. It kills the sperms that are released into the woman’s body.
• It is not effective on its own and must be used with other methods such
as the condom or diaphragm.
 INTRAUTERINE CONTRACEPTIVE DEVICE (IUCD)
• Also known as intrauterine device (IUCD)
• Either made of plastic or copper wire coil
• This device is fitted inside the uterus by a doctor and can be left inside for 2 – 3 years.
• How does it works?
• Prevent sperms from swimming up the uterus, and the fertilisation and implantation
of the embryo.
• when it is removed, pregnancies can occur.
THE RHYTHM METHOD
• It is used by people who believe that other
contraceptive methods are wrong and against their
religion.
• The couple identify the fertile period of the woman.
They avoid having intercourse during this time
because an egg is most likely to be present in the
oviduct.
• It is not a reliable and effective method for women
with irregular menstrual cycles.
VASECTOMY

• Also known as male

sterilisation. – require
minor surgery
• Sperm ducts are cut and
then tied to prevent the
sperms travelling from the
testes to the urethra and
penis.
• No sperm will be released
through the penis.
LIGATION
• Also known as female sterilisation or tubal ligation. It involves more
complicated surgery than a vasectomy
• It is irreversible and usually carried out on a woman who does not want
any more children
• The middle parts of the oviducts are cut and the open ends are clipped
or tied.
• It stops the released ovum from getting into the oviduct. Thus, prevents
fertilsation.
THE IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH ON HUMAN
REPRODUCTION
• Regular routine check-ups for both husband and wife because it helps:
• To identify the problems faced by the childless couples
• To diagnose diseases like cancer, AIDS or growth in the reproductive
organs early and to seek early treatment
• The research on human reproduction is centred on:
• Overcoming sterility
• Birth control methods
• Maintaining healthy reproductive systems.
THE IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH ON HUMAN
REPRODUCTION
• it helps childless couples overcome sterility problems
• It helps create happier and healthier families
• Enables couples to plan their family and ensures that mother and baby
are both healthy
• Family planning reduces the financial burdens on parents and ensures
that parents can give more love and care to their children
• Family planning also helps in control the rate of population growth of a
country and indirectly helps control social problems
MISUSE OF BIRTH CONTROL METHODS
• Misuse of birth control methods may leads to social problems like:
• Indiscriminate sexual activities among men and women
• Broken families
• The spread of sexually transmitted diseases such as AIDS
• Easy access to contraceptive pills without proper prescriptions may
result in health problems like heart diseases, hypertension, and liver
damage among the users.
SUMMARY
Birth control method
Natural – rhythm method
Chemical – use of spermicides
Mechanical – use of condoms and
IUCDs
Hormonal – contraceptive pills
Surgical – vasectomy and tubal
ligation
Methods of treating infertility
IVF – In Vitro fertilsation
GIFT – Gamete intra-Fallopian
transfer
ZIFT – Zygote intra-Fallopian transfer
IUI – Intrauterine insemination
ICSI – Intracytoplasmic sperm
injection
Egg donation, and egg freezing
technique
Surrogate mothers
SELF ASSESS 4.7
1. After a check up with a doctor, a childless couple discover that the
husband is sterile. What are the possible reasons for the husband’s
sterility?
2. Which contraceptive method is irreversible? Explain why it is irreversible.
4.8 SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF
FLOWERING PLANTS
• The flower is very important in the reproductive system of a
plant.
• Flowers produces the male and female gametes for sexual
reproduction. They produce seeds which finally grow into new
plants.
• Types of flowers:
• Bisexual – have both the male and female reproductive
organs.
• Unisexual – only have either the male or female organs.
PARTS OF A FLOWER AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
Part Characteristics function
Sepal Outermost whorl of a Protects the flower during
flower. Usually green in the bud stage
colour
Petal second whorl of a attracts insects for
flower. Usually brightly pollination
coloured and scented
Stamen (male Consists of the anther • Anther – produces pollen
reproductive part) and filament grains. Male gametes are
produced in the pollen
grain
• Filament – holds the
anther
PARTS OF A FLOWER AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
Part Characteristics function
Pistil/ carpel Consists of the • Stigma – posesses
(female stigma, style, ovary sticky surface for the
reproductive part) and ovule pollen grains to attach
to
• Style
• Connects the
stigma to the ovary
• Allows the pollen
tube to grow
towards the ovule
• Ovary – surrounds and
protects the ovules
inside
• Ovule – contains the
female gametes. After
fertilisation, the ovule
develops into a seed.
STRUCTURES OF STAMEN – FILAMENT AND
ANTHER
STRUCTURES OF PISTIL – STIGMA, STYLE,
OVARY, OVULE
SELF ASSESS 4.8
1. What are the reproductive organs in flowering
plants?
2. Name the parts of pistil and stamen
3. Where does fertilisation take place in flowering
plants?
4. Give two differences between the sepals and the
petals of a hibiscus flower.
5. Jane planted two papaya trees in her garden.
After a few months, both plants started to flower.
However only one plant bears fruits. Explain why
this happens.
 4.9 POLLINATION
• Pollination – pollen grains are transferred from the anther
to the stigma.
• Pollination enables fertilisation and sexual reproduction.
• Flowers have different adaptations to ensure pollination
takes place.
• When the anther of a flower is mature, it bursts open and
the pollen grains are exposed.
• The pollen grains may fall to the ground or be carried away
by pollinating agents:
• Wind
• Water
• Insects
• animals
 POLLINATING AGENTS - INSECTS
• Examples: butterflies, bees, moths

Suck • Characteristics of flowers pollinated by insects:

nectar • Big and colourful flowers with short flower
stalks.
Collect • Produce nectar and are scented
pollen • Anther and stigma are enclosed inside the flower
grain • Short filaments and small anthers
• Short styles and stigmas with sticky surfaces
Transfer • Produce small quantities of pollen grains which
pollen are large, sticky and have rough surfaces
grain
POLLINATING AGENTS - ANIMALS
• Examples: birds, bats
• When these animals suck the nectar from a flower, the pollen
grains stick to the feathers, fur, beaks or body of the animals.
• The pollen grains are then transferred to the stigma of the same
flower or other flowers that the animal visit.
• Examples of plants pollinated by animals:
• Durians
• Rambutans
• Hibiscus
• African tulips
• The characteristics of flowers
pollinated by animals are similar
to those pollinated by insects.
 POLLINATING AGENTS - WIND
• Most of the monocotyledonous plants are pollinated by
wind.
Wind • A lot of pollen may be wasted when they landed on the
blows ground
• Characteristics of wind-pollinated flowers:
Pollen • Small flowers, not brightly coloured, long stalks
grain • Do not produce nectar and are not scented
blown • Anthers and stigma hang outside the flowers and sway
by the wind
Landed
• Anthers produce large quantities of pollen – small, light,
on smooth
stigma • Long style and stigma, stigma is long and feathery
POLLINATING AGENTS - WATER
• Works for aquatic plants
• The moving water helps to free pollen grains from the anther to the
stigma
• Example: hydrilla, water lily, and water hyacinth.
• Pollen grains are normally light, able to float on water and do not rot
easily.
• Characteristics of the flower:
• Produce large amounts of pollen
COMPARISON OF FLOWERS POLLINATED BY
INSECTS AND WIND.
Characteristics Insects Wind
Petals Large and brightly Smaller and not brightly
coloured coloured
Pollen grains Small quantities, large, Large quantities,
sticky and rough powdery and smooth
Stigmas Sticky Large and feathery
Stigmas and anthers Located in the flower Hang outside the flower
Nectar Produce nectar No nectar
Smell Scented No scent
SELF POLLINATION AND CROSS POLLINATION
• Self-pollination
• transfer of pollen grains from the
anther of one flower to the stigma of
the same flower or to the stigma of
another flower on the same plant.
• Cross-pollination
• Pollen grains from the anther of one
flower land on the stigma of another
flower of a different plant of the
same species.
COMPARING SELF-POLLINATION AND CROSS-
POLLINATION
Self-pollination
Involves only one parent
Involves one or two flowers of the
same plant
Less variety in the new plants
produced
Characteristics of the new plant
produced:
• Has the same characteristics as
the parent plant
• Has lower resistance against
plant diseases and pests
Cross-pollination
Involves two plants of the same
species
Involves two flowers of different
plants of the same species
More varieties in the new plants
produced
Characteristics of the new plant
produced:
• Inherits characteristics from both
parent plant, resulting in new
varieties of plants
• higher resistance against plant
diseases and pests
• Healthier, can adapt to the
changing environment
• Produces more and better quality
fruits and seeds
• shorter maturity period
USE OF CROSS-POLLINATION IN AGRICULTURE
• Malaysian agricultural agencies:
• Malaysian Agriculture Research and Development Institute (MARDI)
• Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB)
• These agencies are responsible for carrying out research into cross-
pollination to produce better quality agricultural products.
• Examples of cross-pollination in agriculture:
• a cross between two oil palm species Dura and Pisifera has resulted
in a new species called Tenera which can produce a higher yield and
better quality palm oil.
• New varieties of paddy plants like MR103 and MR106 produce better
quality rice grains.
• Eksotika, masmadu
SELF ASSESS 4.9
1. Give the definition of pollination
2. Pollen grains are transferred from the anther of a
flower to the stigma of another flower of different
plant of the same species.
1.What is this type of pollination?
2.Give the advantages of this type of pollination.
3. How would a research worker obtain a new variety of
plant with better qualities through cross-pollination?
4. If a pollen from a papaya flower lands on the stigma of
a banana flower, what would be the result?
4.10 DEVELOPMENT OF FRUITS AND SEEDS IN
PLANTS
• Fertilisation
• Take place after pollination
• Occurs when male gamete in the pollen grains fuses with the egg cell
(female gamete) in the ovule.
• Pollen grain  stigma (sugary secretion on the surface of the stigma
stimulates the pollen grain to germinate)  pollen tube formed from the
pollen grain  style  ovule inside the ovary
• The pollen tube continues to grow and enters the ovule through a tiny
hole called the mycropile.
4.10 DEVELOPMENT OF FRUITS AND SEEDS IN
PLANTS
• The pollination process occurs when pollen grains land on the sticky
surface of the stigma
1

• Sugary secretion on the stigma stimulates the pollen grain to germinate

2
• A pollen tube is formed from the pollen grain and grows downwards through
the style towards the ovary. By the time it reaches the ovary, it contains two
3 male gametes.

• The male gametes enter the ovule through the micropyle and one of the
male gametes fuses with the female gamete to form a zygote
4
 THE FORMATION OF FRUITS AND SEEDS
• A zygote undergoes cell
division and develops into an
embryo.
• The embryo is made up of
the plumule, radicle and
cotyledons
CHANGES THAT OCCUR TO THE FLOWER AFTER
FERTILISATION
Flower parts After fertilisation
Ovum Zygote – embryo
Ovule Seed
Ovary Fruit
Ovule wall Testa of the seed
Ovary wall Wall of the fruit
Stigma, style Become smaller, dry up and drop off,
or may remain to help in dispersal
Stamens Wither and drop off
Sepals, petals Wither and drop off
THE FORMATION OF FRUITS AND SEEDS
• The seed protects the embryo, the fruit
protects the seeds
• The seed will germinate into a young plant
under suitable soil conditions.

• A seed is made up of an embryo and a food

store in a protective seed coat
• Seeds from different plants are different in
size, shape and colour
• The endosperm, which acts as a food store, is
found mostly in the monocotyledonous seed
SELF ASSESS 4.10
1. What is the function of pollen tube?
2. What happens to the ovary and ovule after fertilisation?
3. Name two functions of a fruit
4. Describe what happens to the ovule and the ovary after fertilisation
4.11 GERMINATION OF SEEDS
• Structure and function of a seed
• Seed is made up of embryo, a food store and a seed coat
• Seed coat (testa) covering the enclosed seed, protects the embryo
from injury and from drying out
• Embryo is made up of plumule, a radicle, and one or two cotyledons.
• Monocotyledonous plants – endosperm stores the food.
• Dicotyledonous plant – cotyledon stores the food.
THE STRUCTURES OF SEEDS AND THEIR
FUNCTIONS
Structure Function
Testa (seed coat) An outer covering that protects the
seed
Micropyle A tiny hole that allows air and water
to enter the seed
Hilum The part where the seed is attached
to the fruit
Cotyledon Stores food in the form of starch to
be used during the germination of
the seed
Plumule The part of the embryo that grows
into shoot
Radicle The part of the embryo that grows
into root
 GERMINATION OF SEED
• Germination – growth of the seed into a seedling

Breaking of the
Absorption of testa
Swelling of the
water through the
seed What is the
micropyle
function of water?

Radicle emerges Plumule grows

through the upwards,
micropyle, grow
downwards, develops into a
forming root shoot
GERMINATION OF SEED
• Once the testa breaks, more oxygen reaches the embryo. The oxygen is
used to oxidise food and turns it into energy during cell respiration. The
energy is used for seed germination.
• Food store in the cotyledons provide foods for the growth of the radicle
and plumule
• Seedling continues to absorb food from the food store until the first
green leaves emerge.
• The cotyledons will shrivel and fall off after all food has been used up
during germination.
• green leaves then will take over the role of food production by producing
their own food through photosynthesis.
SUMMARY GERMINATION OF SEEDS
A: The seeds absorbs water through the micropyle,
causing the testa to break
B: The radicle grows downwards into the soil
C: The radicle develops into a root
D: The plumule grows upwards towards the sunlight
E: The plumule grows into shoot (first leaves). The
cotyledons become smaller and finally shrivel and fall
off.
TYPES OF SEED GERMINATION
Epigeal germination
The cotyledons rise above the
surface of the soil
Examples: sword bean, bitter gourd,
sunflower plants
Hypogeal germination
The cotyledons remain below the
surface of the soil
Examples: maize plant, mango, and
rubber trees
CONDITIONS NEEDED FOR GERMINATION OF
SEEDS
• Seeds stays dormant until they get favourable conditions to germinate
• The conditions needed for germination vary from species to species.
• In general, all seeds need the following factors to germinate:
• Water – softens the testa and causes it to burst open. Water also
acts as a medium for the enzyme to act on the stored food and
change it to soluble food substances needed by the embryo during
germination
• air – contains oxygen needed for respiration. Respiration releases
energy required for germination.
• Suitable temperature – most seeds will germinate at temperatures
between 10 degree celcius and 35 degree celcius
SELF ASSESS 4.11
1. Name the parts of the embryo of a dicotyledon seed.
2. What is the function of the cotyledon?
3. Which part of the seed will develop into the:
1.Leaf?
2.Root?
4. List down all factors for the germination of seeds
5. Explain the function of water in the germination of seeds.
6. How do seedlings obtain food during germination?
7. Why does a shopkeeper keep beans, peas and grains
in a very dry place in his shop?
4.12 VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION IN
FLOWERING PLANTS
• Besides sexual reproduction, flowering plants also carries out vegetative
reproduction.
• It is used widely in research and agriculture. This method produces
many young plants of high quality very quickly.
• Young tissues from the shoot, roots and leaves can be used as
vegetative parts in tissue culture techniques to produce young plants
• Refer asexual reproduction: vegetative reproduction
THE APPLICATION OF RESEARCH ON
VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION IN AGRICULTURE
• MARDI and MPOB – carry research on vegetative reproduction in
agriculture to produce new varieties of crops, increase yield within a
short time and improved quality.
• stem cutting
• A cutting is a piece of twig or branch which is cut off from the parent
plant. It is then placed in the soil.
STEM CUTTING
• The cutting must include
a node near its base.
• Adventitious root will grow
from the node after a few
days
• Plants that have been
successfully grown by
stem cuttings include
sugar cane, bouganville,
rose and hibiscus
TISSUE CULTURE
• It is an example of biotechnology
• Biotechnology – the use of living cells, for example, bacterial, plant and
animal cells for the production of useful substances and processes
• Advantage: produce many young plants in a short time
• Good quality parent plants are selected for tissue culture.
• The young plant produced is called as clone.
• Plants that are successfully cloned : banana, paddy, tomato, carrot,
maize, coffee, oil palm, orchid and rubber tree
SELF ASSESS 4.12 (FINALLY)
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of vegetative
reproduction compared to sexual reproduction?
2. Young shoots start to grow from the potato tuber after
being kept in a basket for one to two weeks. Explain why
this happens.
3. Name the vegetative structures of plants
4. State two differences between vegetative reproduction and
reproduction of flowering plants.
GO ON KIDS, ASK ME.