timber

General
 Timber has been in very common use for-
engineering purposes since ancient times.

 Even today there are certain works, where timber

is considered as the most ideal material.

 Today although materials like steel, cement, stone

bricks etc. have occupied lot of field, where timber
was almost used, still timber continues to be an
important structural material.
 General

• There is difference between terms timber and wood.

Wood includes all types of wood which may be
burning wood, structural wood, furniture wood etc.
But wood suitable for use as a structural material is
called timber.
• So we can say: Wood is usually used to refer to the
material in its natural state...timber refers to it after it
has been modified by man. So you go to the forest to
collect wood for the fire, and to the DIY store to get
timber for doing up your house
 General
Timber is obtained from trees. Timber denotes structural
wood. A standing living tree is known as standing
timber.
Rough timber.
When tree has been cut and its stem and branches
are roughly converted into pieces of suitable lengths.
Converted timber
When roughly converted timber is further sawn
and converted into commercial size the planks, logs,
battens, posts, beams, etc
 Timber
TIMBER:
The wood which is suitable or fit for engineering
construction or engineering purpose is called
timber.
WOOD:
The organic matter obtained from trees is called
wood.
LUMBER:
The sawed wood meant for construction in the
form of boards is called lumber.
 TYPES OF TREES:
Trees are classified into two groups depending upon growth pattern.
(1)Endogenous trees:
The trees which grow inwards in longitudinal fibrous mass are called
endogenous trees.
(2)Exogenous tress:
The trees which grow in out wards across horizontal section of stem
are called exogenous trees.
These trees are only fit for engineering construction.
Exogenous trees are again subdivided in to two types.
Conifers or Evergreen:
They give soft wood.
They have pointed leaves.
Examples:
Deodar, Pine, Chir, Kail,etc
Deciduous:
These have hard wood.
These have broad leaves.
Examples: Teak, Sal,Shisham, etc.
 SEASONING OF TIMBER:
• As fresh timber which is obtained from trees
contains about 30 to 40 % sap or moisture.
This sap is very harmful for the life of a timber.
• Therefore, it is necessary to remove that sap
by applying some special methods.
• All those methods which are used for
removing the sap from timber are collectively
termed as seasoning of timber.
 Advantages
Advantages of seasoned timber.
It has reduced weight,
It is strong and durable,
It has resistance to decay or rot,
It takes high polish,
It is easier to work,
Its life is more.
 Types of Timber Seasoning
(1)Natural Seasoning,
(2)Artificial Seasoning,
(a) Kiln Seasoning,
(b) Chemical Seasoning,
(c) Electric Seasoning,
(3) Water Seasoning,

(1)Natural Seasoning:
In the air seasoning or natural seasoning or natural drying,
seasoning of timber, timber is dried by direct action of air,
wind and sun.
In this method, the timber logs are arranged one over the
other, keeping some space or distance between them for air
circulation of fresh air.
Generally this type of seasoning requires few months to over
a year, this is very slow process.
Natural Seasoning:
• (2) ARTIFICIAL SEASONING
(a) Kiln Seasoning,
(b) Chemical Seasoning,
(c) Electric Seasoning,
(a)Kiln Seasoning:
In kiln seasoning timber is placed in a chamber
with some special heating arrangement.
In this process one thing should be kept in mind
that heating system should be under control,
other wise timber will be crack or wrap. The
time required for this seasoning is 3 to 12
days. This is quick process.
 (b) Chemical Seasoning
• Chemical seasoning carbon dioxide, ammonium
carbonate or urea are used as agents for
seasoning, those are applied in dry state, the
inter surface of timber dries first than outer
side.
• This ensures uniform seasoning.
• The time required for this seasoning is 30 to 40
days.
 (c)Electric Seasoning

• In this method electric

current is passed through the
timber logs.
• The time required for this
seasoning is 05 to 08 hours.
 (3)Water Seasoning:

• In water seasoning, timber logs are kept

immersed whole in the flowing water.
• The sap present in timber is washed away.
• After that logs are taken out from water and
are kept in open air, so water present in
timber would be dried by air.
• The time required for this type of seasoning is
2 to 4 weeks.
 USES OF TIMEBR
1.Building construction,
2.Construction of house posts,
3.Construction of beams,
4.Construction of rafters,
5.Construction of bridges,
6.Construction of piles, poles and railway sleepers,
7. For furniture making,
8. For light packing cases,
9. For high packing cases (for machinery and similar stores),
10. For manufacturing of agricultural implements,
11. For making toys, etc,
12. For manufacturing of veneers and ply woods.
 VENEER
• Thin sheet of uniform thickness of wood is
called veneer.
• PLYWOOD:
• Veneers used for making plywood are known
as plies and ply wood is made by gluing
together plies in odd numbers.
• Gluing is done under pressure.
 DEFECTS IN TIMBER:
Most common defects in timber are:
1. Heart Shakes
2. Star Shakes
3. Cup Shakes
4. Radial Shakes
5. Rind Galls
6. Wind Cracks
7. Knots
8. Dead Wood
 Heart Shakes
• These are splits occurring in the centre of the
tree and running from the pith (inner most
part) to wards the sap wood from the
medullary (vascular tissues) rays.
• In some timbers, these splits are hardly visible
and in some timbers these are quite
permanent.
• Heart shakes are caused due to shrinkage of
interior parts due to age.
A heart shake straight across the trunk is not a
serious defect.
Heart Shakes
 Medullary Rays
• These are thin horizontal veins radiating from
the pith to wards the bark. These carry sap
from outer side to inner side.
 (2) Star Shakes
• These are splits which
radiate from the
centre of the timber
or from the bark
(outer side), running
in the planes of
medullary rays.
• These occur due to
severe frost or
scorching heat of the
sun.
 Cup Shakes
• These are curved
splits which
separate the
whole or part of
one annual ring
from an other.
• These are
caused due to
the unequal
growth of the
timber.
 Radial Shakes
• These are similar to
the star shakes and
occur in felled timber
when exposed to the
sun during seasoning.
• Radial shakes are
generally irregular,
fine and numerous.
• In this many splits are
appeared.
Radial Shakes
 Rind Galls
These are typical enlarged swellings and occur due to branches cut-off.
 Wind Cracks
These are shakes or splits on the sides of a bark of timber due to
shrinkage of exterior surface exposed to atmospheric influence.
 Knots
These are the roots of the small branches of the tree. These are not harmful.
 Dead Wood
It is the deficient in strength and weight and is the result of trees
being felled after maturity.
 DETERIORATION OF TIMBER(OR)
DECAY OF TIMBER:
There are so many agencies which may cause decay of timber. But there
are three main harmful agencies which cause timber decay.
(1)Decay or Rot:
Decay or rot of timber is the result of the activity of various bacterias and
fungi, which utilize various portions of timber as food; they require both
oxygen and excess moisture. Hence timber having moisture content
below 25 % will not rot easily.
(2)Insects:
There are so many insects which attack the wood, out of them termites
(white ants) are the main insects which are very dangerous for timber.
Termites of one class live under ground and eat wood and forms tubes or
tunnels inside it.

(3)Fire:
Fire is also the damaging factor for timber. As timber has tendency to
burn, so fire can damage it easily.
 PRESERVATION OF TIMBER
There are three main classes of timber preservatives.
(1) Oily substances insoluble in water
(2) Water soluble salts

(1)Oily substances insoluble in water

Coal tar oil is the best known and widely used preservative
material of this class.
It is obtained during the destructive distillation of bituminous
coal.
It is available in many grades and types.
It has high degree of penetration.
It has highly toxic effect to wood destroying fungi.

(2)Water soluble salts:

Zinc chloride is the most extensively used preservative of this
type. It is clean and odourless.
 SPECIAL PAINTS TO SAVE TIMBER FROM FIRE
Following paints are used to save timber from fire.
Diammonium phosphate,
Mono ammonium phosphate,
Mono magnesium phosphate,
Phosphoric acid.

METHODS OF APPLYING PRESERVATIVES:

Before applying preservatives, the timber should be

completely seasoned.
There are some important methods of applying timber
preservatives which are given below.
1.Painting and dipping method
2.Pressure process or full cell process
3.Empty cell process
(1) Painting and dipping method:
This is the most common method in which the preservative material is applied by
means of a brush several times. The timber is also immersed in a tank full of
liquid (preservative material).
In both types the penetration hardly exceeds 1/16’’. The duration of immersion and
temperature of solution is increased the penetration rate.
(2) Pressure process or full cell process:
In this process, the timber is placed in an air tight chamber, from which air is with
drawn by creating a vacuum. The cells are full emptied to receive preservative
material.
After that preservative material is pumped under pressure of 100 to 200 psi and at
a temperature of 120 degreeF.
As the timber contains required quantity of preservative a low vacuum is
maintained to remove excess preservative. Such a timber is generally used in case
of piles in salt water and railway sleepers.
(3) Empty cell process:
This method is similar to the full cell process but initial vacuum is not to be
maintained and no attempt is to be made to remove the air from cells.
The preservative material is applied under pressure of 200 psi.
 Carpentry_ Defects in Timber
The defects that usually occur in the timber may be
classified into two categories as follows:

 Defects that develop  Defects that develop after

during growth of the tree. felling the tree.
 Shakes  Bow
 Twisted timber  Cup
 Upsets or rupture  Twist
 Knots  Radial shakes
 Wind cracks  Wane
 Burls  Diagonal grains
 Carpentry_ Defects in Timber
1.Defects that develop during growth of tree
have been briefly discussed as follows:
1.1 Shakes. This is most serious type of defect in
timber. These are sort of cracks which partly or
completely separate the fibers of wood. A shake is
nothing, but separation of the timber along the
grains. Shakes may be of several types.
 Carpentry_ Defects in Timber
1.1.1 Star shakes
These are radial cracks or
splits that extend from bark
towards the sap wood. They
usually remain confined up to
the plane of sap wood only.
The cracks are widest at the
circumference and go on
narrowing as they proceed
towards the Centre of the tree.
 Carpentry_ Defects in Timber

Star shakes Reasons of star shake

Star shakes usually
develop due to fierce heat
and frost
When logs having this
defect are sawn they
usually separate out into a
number of pieces and
hence become useless.
 Carpentry_ Defects in Timber
1.1.2 Heart shakes.
These splits or cracks occur
in the central part of the
trees. There are widest at the
centre and go on narrowing
as they proceed towards
outside. This defect usually
occurs in over-matured trees.
This defect is usually caused
due to shrinkage of the heart
wood. Heart shakes divide
the tree cross-section into
several parts. Straight
running heart shake is not as
serious as twisted heart
shake.
 Carpentry _Advantages of Timber
• It is easily available every where.
• Its salvage value is high.
• It can be easily transported by converting large
pieces into smaller pieces.
• Working on timber is easy. Timber constructions
can be easily repaired. Additions and alterations to
timber structures can be easily done.
• It can be easily jointed.
• In marine works, timber is considered as an ideal
material as it does not corrode. Cement and iron
structures corrode in sea water, if they are not
protected with special preservative.
 Carpentry _Advantages of Timber
• Being light in weight, it is preferred for building
works in earth quake prone regions.
• It is an excellent material for decorative and general
use furniture. Lot of other internal decorations can
be carried out with it.
• It can with stand, shocks better than iron and
concrete.
• It is good insulator of electricity and heat.
• It is good sound absorbing material.
• Timber can be easily strengthened by attaching steel
or other material with it.
 Carpentry _ Use of Timber
• It can be said that there is no Engineering field,
where timber is not used one way or the other.
• Uses of timber are numerous. Some of its important
uses are given as follows:

It is very much used for railway track sleepers.

It can be used inform of piles, vertical posts,
beams, doors and windows.
It can also be used as members of roofing trusses.
It is an important material for furniture-making
It is used for floors, ceiling, and partition walls.
Carpentry _ Qualities of Good Timber
Following are the qualities of good timber.
• A good timber should be hard and durable.
• It should be capable of resisting the actions of fungi,
chemicals and physical agencies.
• The fibers of the timber should be straight and
compact.
• The timber should be free from knots wists, upsets,
burls shakes, flaws etc.
• Its color should be dark. It should be obtained
preferably from heart wood. Color should be
uniform.
• It should be properly seasoned.
• Its freshly cut surface should smell sweet.
Carpentry _ Qualities of Good Timber
• Its weight should be heavy.
• It should be easily workable. It should not clog the teeth
of saw and should be capable of being easily planned.
• Timber should be tough i.e., it should be capable of
resisting shocks.
• It should be able to withstand the weathering affects.
• It should be strong enough to withstand bending, direct
and shear effects efficiently.
• A clear ringing sound should be emitted by the timber
when struck. Heavy dull sound indicates decayed timber.
• It should offer adequate fire resistance.
• It should be elastic
 WOOD
• Wood is a traditional building material.
The quality of wood varies widely.
• Wood is generally durable, strong,
dependable, workable and possesses
many other characteristics.
• It is, however, highly inflammable and
liable to insect attacks if not properly
protected. Wood is mainly used for roof
skeleton, doors and windows, walls and
partitions in small buildings.
 Properties of Wood Contd.
• Wood may be hard or soft.
• Hard ones include ebony, mahogany,
etc. while soft ones include Douglas fur,
palm tree etc.
• Strength of wood increases with
decreasing moisture content.
• By seasoning (drying), the strength can
be improved. Wood is highly workable.
Paneled doors
 Carpentry_ Defects in Timber
1.1.3Cup shakes.
This defect develops curved slit
between successive annual rings.
The split does not run for the full
circumference of the annual rings.
This defect usually develops due to
1. unequal growth.
2. Another possible reason for their
development may be contraction of
timber under atmospheric changes
together with the twisting action of
strong winds.
 Carpentry_ Defects in Timber
1.1.4Ring shakes.
When cup shake defect runs for full
circumference of the annual ring, it is called
ring shake. It is more serious than cup shake.

1.1.5 Radial shakes.

They are similar to star shakes.
They are numerous, fine and irregular.
They usually occur when felled tree is
exposed to sun for seasoning. The
cracks run for a short distance from
bark to-wards the centre and then
follows the course of an annual ring
and ultimately goes towards the pith.
 Carpentry_ Defects in Timber
1.2 Twisted fibers.
They are caused by twisting of young trees
constantly in one direction under the action
of strong prevalent winds. Timber with
twisted fibers is unsuitable for sawing. The
timber having this defect is mostly used for
posts and poles in an unsawn condition
 Carpentry_ Defects in Timber

1.3 Upsets or ruptures.

‫اضطرابات او تمزقات‬
This defect is caused
due to injury suffered by wood
fibers by crushing or
compression. Upsets are
mainly due to improper felling
of tree and exposure of tree in
its young age to fast blowing
wind. This defect indicates
change in direction of wooden
fibers.
 Carpentry_ Defects in Timber
1.4 Knots.
Knots are generally developed at the bases of branches
cut off from the tree. This phenomenon ultimately results
in the formation of dark, hard rings, known as knots. As
knots break the continuity of the wooden fibers, they
form a source of weakness. The amount of weakness
caused by the knot depends upon the position, size, and
degree of grain distortion around it. Knot is the most
commonly encountered defect of wood.
 Carpentry_ Defects in Timber
It is impossible to procure timber free of knots.
Knots may be dead, live loose,
or tight. Tight knots are not
objectionable unless they
are too large. Their presence on
tension members is objectionable
. It is very difficult to plane
the timber at knots.
 Carpentry_ Defects in Timber

1.5 Wind cracks.

The outer layers of a
standing tree suffer
from the effect of
shrinkage due to
atmospheric agencies.
This causes cracks on
the outer surface only.
These cracks are
known as wind cracks.
 Carpentry_ Defects in Timber

2. Defects that develop after felling the tree.

Conversion of timber is done almost immediately after
felling The tree. The defects that may develop after
felling the tree and also during conversion and
seasoning are the following:
2.1 Bow: when planks of converted of timber shrink
and bend in curved form , in the direction of length.
 Carpentry_ Defects in Timber
2.2 Cup:
this defect is indicated when
wooden planks bend in curved
from in transverse direction.

2.3 Twist
A plank which has distorted spirally
along its length
 Carpentry_ Defects in Timber

Methods of stacking.

Before seasoning, the timber should be stacked in yards

so as to protect the timber from direct sun.

Ends of logs should be protected against splitting by

applying anti-Splitting compositions and stacked on
foundations in closed stacks in one or more layers.
 Carpentry_ Defects in Timber
1.One and nine method of
stacking.
This method of stacking
timber is most suitable for
moderately heavy
coniferous sleepers in hot
climates and for heavy
timbers in moist climates.
 Carpentry_ Defects in Timber
2. Close crib method.
This method of stacking timber
allows reduced air circulations
and thus slows down the pace
of seasoning. This method is
recommended for stacking
heavy structural timbers like in
hot and dry localities.
Flush doors
 Plywood

• Produced by gluing many layers of split

wood together.
• The grains are arranged alternatively to
eliminate distortion.
• The plywood is a very good modern
construction material whose quality
depends on type of wood used, glue
used and pressure of steam used in
gluing.
• Panels comprising of at least three layers of thin wood
bonded together with an adhesive.
• Each ply is usually orientated at a right angle to the adjacent
layer in order to improve strength and reduce the probability
of shrinkage.
• Plywood is a manufactured wood equally panel from thin
sheet of wood veneer. It is one of the mostly used wood
products.
• “Face & back” are commonly preferred for outer layer of ply
and graded according to their quality the inner or
intermediate layer are collective known as “core”.
• It is flexible, inexpensive, workable & re-usable and usually
can be manufactured locally.
• Plywood is resistance to cracking, splitting, shrinkage,
twisting and has high strength.
 PROCESS

Log processing
Peeling veneer
Drying veneer
Veneer sewing
Glue spreading
Pressing and sanding
Edge cutting
Quality control
 PROCESS
First log is selected.
Then from 1 “ thk wood 32 chips are removed.
Layers are stack.
Firstly face is placed than core is kept on it and on it fali
Is kept then again core and face is kept this things are
Glued with the help of phenolic resin and urea.
They are pressed at 1200 ⁰ c .
White part is made of silver oak and dark part is made of
Poplar.
If only poplar is used plywood gets split by using silver
Oak it help it get protected while nailing.
Gurjan and hollong wood are used in making plywood.
Wood can be cut into many shapes.
a) Plank: The thickness is small when compared to its width.

t <<B
B
Plank

b) Beams: Width and thickness dimensions are almost same.

Beams
 Shapes of Wood Contd: Block

• c) Blocks: Very thick eg. 25 x 25 mm(width-

depth) or 20 x 25 mm or 30 x 30 mm
• BLOCK

BLOCK

Many grades of wood exist depending on the

strength.
 METALS
• These are man-made materials whose
properties are known. The most widely used
metal is steel.

Steel:
Steel is very strong, highly durable,
resistant against weather, fire and insects and
possesses almost all good characteristics.
• Steel is used in reinforcement in concrete,
gates, windows, roof trusses, steel sheets for
partitions and tanks etc.
 Other Building Materials (Synthetic
Materials)
• a) Asbestos Cement: Used for making roof
sheets, drain pipes and accessories. It is also
used for partitions and ceilings.
• b) Plastics: used in water supply and sanitary
systems. Also electric fittings.
• c) Ceramics, fibre glass etc. are new materials
used in some restricted areas.
 PAINT & VARNISHES
• The paints are coating of fluid materils and they
are applied over the surface of timber and
metal.
• The varnishes are transprent or nearly solution
of resineous materials & they re applies over
the painted surfaces.
 TYPES OF PAINTS
• Aluminium paints
• Cement paint
• Asbestos paint
• Bituminous paint
• Emulsion paint
• Oil paint
• Plastic paint
• Synthetic ruber
 PROPERTIES OF PAINT & VARNISH
• They are available in wide range of variety.
• They are speaded & strached as a layer on base
by brushes.
• They are transparent
• They provide shine on old & new wood work.
 REQUIREMENT OF PAINT & VARNISHES
• The paints applied on a surface should dry within
24 hours.
• The paint should neither crack nor shrink after
drying.
• The paint should have an attractive appearance.
• The colour of varnish should not develop cracks on
drying.
• The varnish should adopt or accommodate to the
expansion & contration of wood due to
temperature varations.
 Tiles
• A tile is a special type of brick which is often
larger than an ordinary brick.
• Tiles are mostly used for roofing and paving
purposes.
• Standard size of tiles:
• Tiles are manufactured in different sizes
• The most popular sizes are:
•
Tiles are classified into of construction material
Material basis
Common tiles
Encaustic tiles
Depending upon their Use
(1) Roofing Tiles
(a) Plain Tiles
(b) Pot Tiles
(c) Allahabad Tiles
(d) Mangalore Tiles
(e) Concrete Roofing Tiles
(2) Flooring/Paving Tiles
(3) Drain Tiles
(i)Common tiles:
Common tiles may be used for roofing.
Flooring and walling also. Common tiles
are pan tiles, pot tiles and flat tiles.

(ii) Encaustic Tiles:

These tiles are prepared by mixing colors
with the clay before burning. These are
used for decorative purposes.
(i)Roofing tiles:
These may be flat like slates or may be made to different shapes.
Some of the common varieties are discussed below.
(a) Plain tiles:
The size of these tiles is 25 cm x 15 cm to 28 cm x 18 cm and thickness
varies from 10 mm to 17 mm.
(b) Pan tiles:
These tiles are curved in section.
These are 33 cm to 38 cm long and 23 cm to 28 cm wide
(c) Pot tiles:
These are semi circular in section and taper along the length. The diameter at larger
end is about 23 cm and at the smaller end it is about 20 cm.
(d) Allahabad tiles:
These consist of two sets of tiles. The lower ones are flat tiles with upturned sides.
End widths reduce from 27 cm to 23 cm and the length is about 38 cm. The over tile
is half round in section and tapers from 16.5 cm to 12 cm in diameter. Half round tiles
are moulded on a potters’ wheel as a round tapering cylindrical tile. Two longitudinal
cuts are given to the cylinder while still not dry. With this it is easy to break it into two
semicircular tiles after burning.
(f) Concrete roofing tiles:
Tiles of any shape, size or colour could be made with cement concrete. These are
more strong, durable and weather resistant.
(2)Flooring or Paving tiles:
These are usually thicker than roofing tiles and vary from 15
mm to 30 mm in thickness. Their shapes are square,
hexagonal or any of other geometrical pattern and may be
coloured, if desired.
Depending upon properties of clay flooring tiles are
classified as: class 1, class 2, class 3 tiles. Maximum water
absorption percentages in case of these tiles are 10, 19 and
24 respectively.

(3)Drain tiles:
These are curved tiles made in various shapes and sizes to
suit the work in which they are to be used.
Tiles to be used in the construction of sewage carrying
drains should be glazed.
 MANUFACTURING OF TILES:
Six main operations are involved in
the manufacturing of tiles:
1. Selection of suitable clay
2. Preparation of clay
3. Moulding
4. Drying and Shaping
5. Burning
6. Cooling
(1)Selection of suitable clay:
For manufacturing of tiles, we require superior type of clay. The clay
should be completely free from grit, pebbles and other organic matter.
(2)Preparation of clay:
This is done by mixing water with clay in a tank and storing it in damp
condition. The solution is then allowed to stand quietly in the tank
resulting in the setting and leaving of coarse particles. Water containing
fine clay in solution is rained off to other tanks where it is allowed to dry
leaving fine clay ready for moulding.
(3)Moulding:
Moulding operation is done on the ground specially prepared for that
purpose. All the instruments which are used in the moulding should be
present. The moulder sprinkles ashes over the clay and start to mould
according to the required size of tiles on the smooth and leveled
surface, when the number of 10 to 15 tiles are prepared they are taken
for drying and shaping.
(4)Drying and Shaping:
Two days after moulding, the tiles are given proper shape and then they
are placed on their edges and dried for about two days. One thing
should be kept in mind that we take care to crack and wrap and they
should be dried slowly.
(5)Burning:
Tiles are burnt in a kiln which is in circular shape. Tiles are
kept on their edges and door ways are closed with bricks.
The maximum temperature of tiles should be 2200degreeF
for about three hours. This process is repeated for second
time.
The kiln is isolated after it has cooled down. The kiln should
be protected against bad weather specially on the wind
side by temporary roofing.
(6)Cooling: After burning, cooling is done for 3 to 5 days.
(OR)
3 to 5 days are required for cooling of tiles.
Composite
 Introduction
• A Composite material is a material system composed of two
or more macro constituents that differ in shape and chemical
composition and which are insoluble in each other. The
history of composite materials dates back to early 20th
century. In 1940, fiber glass was first used to reinforce epoxy.
• Applications:
– Aerospace industry
– Sporting Goods Industry
– Automotive Industry
– Home Appliance Industry
 Composite Survey
Composites

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

Large- Dispersion- Continuous Discontinuous Laminates Sandwich

particle strengthened (aligned) (short) panels

Aligned Randomly
oriented Adapted from Fig.
16.2, Callister 7e.
 Composite Survey: Particle-II
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

Concrete – gravel + sand + cement

- Why sand and gravel? Sand packs into gravel voids

Reinforced concrete - Reinforce with steel rebar or remesh

- increases strength - even if cement matrix is cracked

Prestressed concrete - remesh under tension during setting of

concrete. Tension release puts concrete under compressive force
- Concrete much stronger under compression.
- Applied tension must exceed compressive force
Post tensioning – tighten nuts to put under rod under tension
but concrete under compression
threaded
nut rod
 Composite Survey: Fiber
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

• Fibers themselves are very strong

– Provide significant strength improvement to
material
– Ex: fiber-glass
• Continuous glass filaments in a polymer matrix
• Strength due to fibers
• Polymer simply holds them in place and
environmentally protects them
 Composite Survey: Structural

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

• Stacked and bonded fiber-reinforced sheets
-- stacking sequence: e.g., 0º/90º or 0/45/90º
-- benefit: balanced, in-plane stiffness

• Sandwich panels
-- low density, honeycomb core Adapted from Fig.
-- benefit: light weight, large bending stiffness 16.16, Callister 7e.

face sheet
adhesive layer
honeycomb

Adapted from Fig. 16.18,

Callister 7e. (Fig. 16.18 is
from Engineered Materials
Handbook, Vol. 1, Composites, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1987.)