Ee533 Power Operations: Automatic Generation Control

EE533 POWER OPERATIONS
Automatic Generation Control
Satish J. Ranade
Fall ‘05
12/07/21 EE533F05Lecture4b.ppt 1
• The first step in system operation is to ensure

generation load balance
• This translates into maintaining system frequency
• In classical operation (regulated)
– each utility defines a ‘control’ area
– Controls its generation to help maintain SYSTEM
frequency
– Controls its generation to meet load and interchange
Control Area
Net Interchange from area

General Objective ( Classical)
Control MW Generation to
• Maintain(Regulate) Frequency
-- assist entire system irrespective of
cause
• Regulate Contractual Interchange
• Technical Criteria set by National Electric
Reliability Council(NERC)
Local Governor Control
-- responds at generator level to correct frequency
deviation. Does not attempt to restore all the way to
60 Hz
Load Frequency Control
--real-time control from Control centers controls
generation to restore frequency to 60 Hz and
interchange to contracted amount
Economic dispatch
-- Reallocates generation to minimize cost
To understand AGC we will look at
•Effect of small load-generation imbalances in terms of

frequency and power flow changes
•Governor action and how a governor controls frequency
•Classical approach to restoring frequency and interchange
using “Area Control Error “ concepts
•Economics of generator scheduling and economic allocation
of generation
•Later we will look at changes brought about by restructuring
Generator Turbine Governor Behavior
•Generation (Mechanical Power) – Load (Electrical
Power) Imbalance results in change in machine speed,
frequency and power flow
•Machine electro-mechanical dynamics is described by
swing equation
•For a single machine serving a load ( in per unit)
Pm-Pe = M dω/dt
Pm= mechanical power Pe= electrical power ω = speed(frequency)
M = Inertia On time-scale of
electromechanical dynamics
Pl Pe = Pl where Pl is the load
Pm Pm-Pl = M dω/dt
•We will look at how governors work and derive a model

that shows how frequency changes because of load
generation imbalance
•We will begin with a single generator and load and then
generalize to large system
Pl Pm-Pl = M dω/dt
Pm
Majority of imbalances encountered in normal operation are ‘sm
( as compared to a fault at the terminals!)
Customary to use small-signal linearized models
Pmo+ Δ Pm- Plo + Δ Pl = M d (ω o+Δ ω) / dt
Pmo, Plo and ω o represent the initial operation point

where Pmo=Plo
Δ Pm, Δ Pl ,Δ ωare (small) deviations from the operating point
Δ Pm- Δ Pl = M d (Δ ω) / dt
Pe
Pl
Pm
In modeling, analysis and simulation we often use Laplace domain
block diagrams ( dF/dt=> sF(s) for zero initial conditions)
Δ Pm(s)- Δ Pl(s) = sM Δ ω(s) =>
Δ ω(s)= [Δ Pm(s)- Δ Pl(s)]/ sM
Δ Pm(s)
1/(Ms) Δ ω(s)
Δ Pl(s)
A sustained load – generation imbalanced would lead to a continuous
change in frequency!!!!!!!
Pe
Pl
Pm
In modeling, analysis and simulation we often use Laplace domain
block diagrams ( dF/dt=> sF(s) for zero initial conditions)
Δ Pm(s)- Δ Pl(s) = sM Δ ω(s) =>
Δ ω(s)= [Δ Pm(s)- Δ Pl(s)]/ sM
Δ Pm(s) +
1/(Ms+D) Δ ω(s)
Δ Pl(s) -
A sustained load – generation imbalanced would lead to a continuous
change in frequency!!!!!!!
Load response to frequency change
Pe
Pl For Rotating components of load the

Pm real power increases with
frequency
Δ Pl(s) = Δ Pl(s)+ DΔ ω(s)
Δ Pl(s) now is an ‘incipient’ load change ( a motor starts)

DΔ ω(s) represents the response that the additional load
causes frequency to drop, all motors slow down, and so load
drops as DΔ ω(s)
Pe

frequency
Δ Pm(s)- Δ Pl(s)-D Δ ω(s) = sM Δ ω(s) =>

Δ ω(s)= [Δ Pm(s)- Δ Pl(s)]/ (Ms+D)
Δ Pm(s) +
1/(Ms+D) Δ ω(s)
Δ Pl(s) -
Pe

Δ Pm(s) + frequency
1/(Ms+D) Δ ω(s)
Δ Pl(s) -
Let’s say Δ Pm=0 Δ Pl= P u(t) or Δ Pl(s) = P/s
Δ ω(s) = - Δ PL(s)/(MS+D) = - P / [s(MS+D)
Δ ω(t) = - (P/D) ( 1 – e –tM/D)

Pe

Δ Pm(s) + frequency
1/(Ms+D) Δ ω(s)
Δ Pl(s) -
Let’s say Δ Pm=0 Δ Pl= P u(t) or Δ Pl(s) = P/s
Δ ω(s) = - Δ PL(s)/(MS+D) = - P / [s(MS+D)
Δ ω(t) = - (P/D) ( 1 – e –tM/D)

Pe
For Rotating components of load the
Pl real power increases with
Pm frequency
The offsetting load change arrests frequency change–

frequency settles to Δ ω = -P/D
Could derive this through final value theorem or energy

balance
P = original load increase =

load drop due to frequency drop -D Δ ω
Model with governor
For M= 6, D= 1 and
Load change P=1 pu
Steady stae frequency drop
Δω= -P/D = -1 pu
Pe
Pl The Governor
Pm
Speed
Governor Desired Generation

A 1 pu frequency drop is unrealistic and speed
governing is needed!
Measures speed(frequency) and adjusts valves to

change generation
Frequency drops => Raise generation

Pe
Pl
Pm
Speed
Governor
Desired Generation
Emphasis – A low tech gadget that is
Autonomous
Detailed and complex models for Governors exist and are used
in long-term dynamic simulations
Simplest model
Droop
Response
Steady state error
Steady State Response
Using energy balance
Δ Pl - D Δω - (1/R) Δω = 0
Load Load GenerationSteady state error

Change Response Change from
Governor
Δω = - Δ Pl /( D+1/R)
Typical R = 0.05 pu ( 5% factory set)
For ΔP = 1 , D = 1, R=0.05 Δω = 1/21 = - 0.0476 pu
Steady state response – Role of Pref
ΔPm = Δ Pref – (1/R) Δ ω
Δ Pref is used to change generation
from the control center through SCADA
At nominal frequency (Δ ω=0) unit

Δω Would generate Pref0+ Δ Pref
ΔPm
Δ Pref Δ Pref’
Generator Turbine Governor Behavior-Isochronous governor
Uses Integral control and restores

Frequency error to zero
Use in standalone or islanded cases
Generator Turbine Governor Summary
No Governor
Iso – restores exactly
Standard Governor Std – leaves small error
No– unacceptable deviation
Isochronous
Multiple Generators and Areas
Pe1 Ptie
Pe2
jX
P1l Pl2
Pm1 Pm2
Area 1 or Gen 1 Tie Line Area 2 or Gen 2
Now look at two generators or areas connected by a line or network
If load changes in any area how do frequencies and line power Ptie
change?
We will want to restore both to nominal value
A simple model for the line is just a series inductive reactance

Pe1 Ptie
Pe2
jX
P1l Pl2
Pm1 Pm2
A simple model for the line is just a series inductive reactance.
Let us also assume voltage magnitudes are ~nominal ( 1pu)
From simplified transmission line models

Ptie~ (1/X) sin(δ1- δ2)
We also know that
d δ1 /dt =ω1 d δ2 /dt = ω2
Combine these with swing equations
Pe1 Ptie
Pe2
jX
P1l Pl2
Pm1 Pm2
Pm1- Pl1 –D1Δ ω1-Ptie = M1d ω1/dt
Pm2- Pl2 –D2Δ ω2-Ptie = M2 d ω2/dt
Ptie= (1/X) sin(δ1- δ2)
d δ1 /dt =ω1 d δ2 /dt = ω2

Pe1 Ptie
Pe2
jX
P1l Pl2
Pm1 Pm2
Δ Pm1- Δ Pl1 –D1Δ ω1- Δ Ptie = M1d Δ ω1/dt
Δ Pm2- Δ Pl2 –D2Δ ω2- Δ Ptie = M2d Δ ω2/dt
Ptie= (1/X) (Δ δ1- Δ δ2) ; sin x~x for small x
d Δ δ1 /dt = Δ ω1 d Δ δ2 /dt = Δ ω2
Pe1 Ptie
Pe2
jX
P1l Pl2
Pm1 Pm2
In s domain with zero initial conditions
Δ Pm1(s)- Δ Pl1(s) –D1 Δ ω1(s)- Δ Ptie(s) = M1 sΔ ω1(s)
Δ Pm2(s)- Δ Pl2(s) –D2 Δ ω2(s)- Δ Ptie(s) = M2 sΔ ω2(s)
Ptie(s)= (1/X) (Δ δ1(s)- Δ δ2(s))

Δ δ1(s) = Δ ω1(s)/s δ2 (s) = Δ ω2(s)/s
Pe1 Ptie
Pe2
jX
P1l Pl2
Pm1 Pm2
Governor
Δ Pm1(s) +
Δ ω1(s) 1/s Δ δ1(s)
1/(M1s+D1)
Δ Pl1(s) -
+ +
Δ Ptie(s)
1/X
-
Δ Pm1(s) +
- Δ ω1(s) 1/s
1/(M1s+D1)
Δ δ2(s)
Δ Pl1(s) -
Governor
Pe1 Ptie
Pe2
jX
P1l Pl2
Pm1 Pm2
Qualitative Response
Load increase in area 1

Area 1 frequency drops
Area 1 voltage phase angle fall behind are 2
Ptie decreases (stabilizes Area 1 frequency, drags down area 2)
Area 2 frequency drops
Both governors raise generation
Steady state achieved at a lower frequency and Ptie
Area 1 assists Area 2 in meeting the load increase; frequency drop is
lower
Δω2
Δω1 Frequency Error
Interchange Error
Δptie decreases from 1 to 2
Phase angle difference
Δptie decreases from 1 to 2
Pe1 Ptie
Pe2
jX
P1l Pl2
Pm1 Pm2
Steady state => return to synchronism at some frequency

Δω = Δω1 = Δω2
Δ Pl1 - D1 Δω - (1/R1) Δω + ΔPtie = 0
Load Load Generation Interchange

Change Response Change from
Governor
Δ Pl2 - D2 Δω - (1/R2) Δω - ΔPtie = 0
Pe1 Ptie
Pe2
jX
P1l Pl2
Pm1 Pm2
Steady state => return to synchronism at some frequency
Δω = -( ΔPl1 + ΔPl2)/( D1+D2 + 1/R1 + 1/R2)
ΔPtie = -Δ Pl1 + (D1+1/R1)( ΔPl1 + ΔPl2)/( D1+D2 + 1/R1 + 1/R2)
ΔPm1 = - (1/R1)( ΔPl1 + ΔPl2)/( D1+D2 + 1/R1 + 1/R2)
ΔPm2 = - (1/R2)( ΔPl1 + ΔPl2)/( D1+D2 + 1/R1 + 1/R2)

Pe1 Ptie
Pe2
jX
P1l Pl2
Pm1 Pm2
Identical Areas R1=R2=0.05 D1=D2=1 ΔPl1 = 1 ΔPl2=0
Δω = -( ΔPl1 + ΔPl2)/( D1+D2 + 1/R1 + 1/R2) = -0.0238 pu

Corrected!
ΔPtie = -0.5 pu
ΔPm1 = 0.5pu
ΔPm2 = .5 pu --------- Concept of Assist

Load sharing (also see Example 11.2 Glover and Sarma)
Area 1 R1=0.05 1000 MVA Base
Area 2 R2= 0.05 500 MVA base
D1=D2=0 ΔPl1 = 1 ΔPl2=0
On 1000 MVA Base R2= R2*Sbase new/Sbase old=0.1

Δω = -( ΔPl1 + ΔPl2)/( D1+D2 + 1/R1 + 1/R2) = .03333 pu
ΔPtie = -0.5 pu
ΔPm1 = 0.666 pu 2/3 of load change

ΔPm2 = 0.333 pu 1/3 of load change
If droop is same on own area( or machine) base areas raise

generation in proportion to their capacities
Coherent generators
The oscillation in frequency/angle represent ‘synchronizing swings’

As generators exchange Kinetic energy trying to synchronize or find a
common frequency
The swing is large and slow when systems are separated by long lines
Within an area generators synchronize quickly and swing as one large

unit against other areas.
An area can be modeled as one large unit.
Regulation R cannot be made too small
-- System becomes oscillatory and/or unstable
Isochronous governors cannot be used with multiple generators
-- Difficult to supply identical reference frequency to each generators
Pm1
Pm2
Governor-Turbine Generator Summary
• Load-generation imbalance produces frequency
changes as well as power flow (interchange) changes
• Turbine generator dynamics is described by the swing
equation
• Governors achieve load-generation balance by
changing generation based on frequency deviation
• Regulation/droop permits proper load sharing
• All generators(areas) assist in the load balancing
process
• Governors do not restore frequency error to zero
Load Frequency Control- Restoring
Frequency and Interchange

Ee533 Power Operations: Automatic Generation Control

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EE533 POWER OPERATIONS

Automatic Generation Control

• The first step in system operation is to ensure

Net Interchange from area

•Effect of small load-generation imbalances in terms of

•We will look at how governors work and derive a model

Pmo, Plo and ω o represent the initial operation point

Pl For Rotating components of load the

Δ Pl(s) = Δ Pl(s)+ DΔ ω(s)

Δ Pl(s) now is an ‘incipient’ load change ( a motor starts)

Pl For Rotating components of load the

Δ Pm(s)- Δ Pl(s)-D Δ ω(s) = sM Δ ω(s) =>

Pl For Rotating components of load the

Δ ω(s) = - Δ PL(s)/(MS+D) = - P / [s(MS+D)

Δ ω(t) = - (P/D) ( 1 – e –tM/D)

Pl For Rotating components of load the

Δ ω(s) = - Δ PL(s)/(MS+D) = - P / [s(MS+D)

Δ ω(t) = - (P/D) ( 1 – e –tM/D)

The offsetting load change arrests frequency change–

Could derive this through final value theorem or energy

P = original load increase =

Governor Desired Generation

Measures speed(frequency) and adjusts valves to

Frequency drops => Raise generation

Steady state error

Load Load GenerationSteady state error

Typical R = 0.05 pu ( 5% factory set)

For ΔP = 1 , D = 1, R=0.05 Δω = 1/21 = - 0.0476 pu

At nominal frequency (Δ ω=0) unit

Uses Integral control and restores

Use in standalone or islanded cases

Iso – restores exactly

Standard Governor Std – leaves small error

No– unacceptable deviation

Now look at two generators or areas connected by a line or network

We will want to restore both to nominal value

A simple model for the line is just a series inductive reactance

From simplified transmission line models

Pm1- Pl1 –D1Δ ω1-Ptie = M1d ω1/dt

Pm2- Pl2 –D2Δ ω2-Ptie = M2 d ω2/dt

Ptie= (1/X) sin(δ1- δ2)

d δ1 /dt =ω1 d δ2 /dt = ω2

Δ Pm1- Δ Pl1 –D1Δ ω1- Δ Ptie = M1d Δ ω1/dt

Δ Pm2- Δ Pl2 –D2Δ ω2- Δ Ptie = M2d Δ ω2/dt

Ptie= (1/X) (Δ δ1- Δ δ2) ; sin x~x for small x

Δ Pm1(s)- Δ Pl1(s) –D1 Δ ω1(s)- Δ Ptie(s) = M1 sΔ ω1(s)

Δ Pm2(s)- Δ Pl2(s) –D2 Δ ω2(s)- Δ Ptie(s) = M2 sΔ ω2(s)

Ptie(s)= (1/X) (Δ δ1(s)- Δ δ2(s))

Load increase in area 1

Δω1 Frequency Error

Δptie decreases from 1 to 2

Phase angle difference

Δptie decreases from 1 to 2

Steady state => return to synchronism at some frequency

Load Load Generation Interchange

Steady state => return to synchronism at some frequency

Δω = -( ΔPl1 + ΔPl2)/( D1+D2 + 1/R1 + 1/R2)

ΔPtie = -Δ Pl1 + (D1+1/R1)( ΔPl1 + ΔPl2)/( D1+D2 + 1/R1 + 1/R2)

ΔPm1 = - (1/R1)( ΔPl1 + ΔPl2)/( D1+D2 + 1/R1 + 1/R2)

ΔPm2 = - (1/R2)( ΔPl1 + ΔPl2)/( D1+D2 + 1/R1 + 1/R2)

Identical Areas R1=R2=0.05 D1=D2=1 ΔPl1 = 1 ΔPl2=0

Δω = -( ΔPl1 + ΔPl2)/( D1+D2 + 1/R1 + 1/R2) = -0.0238 pu