Unit 2 - Ferrous Metals

UNIT 2 – FERROUS METALS
BUILDING
MATERIALS &
TECHNOLOGY II
ARA 25
 2.1 – Properties and uses of Cast Iron, Wrought Iron and
Steel – Anti-corrosive measures for steel – Mechanical
and Heat Treatment of Steel
 2.2 – Market forms of steel – Structural Steel, Stainless
Steel, Steel Alloys – Properties and Uses
 2.3 – Types of Steel Joints – Current Developments
 2.4 – Drawings in Steel Doors
 2.5 – Drawings in Steel Windows – Operable & Fixed
 2.6 – Drawings in Steel Grills and Gates – Design of
Steel Grills
 2.7 – Drawings in Steel Collapsible Gates and Steel
Rolling Shutters
 FERROUS METALS
General use of metals across all verticals
Latin word “ferrum” > Fe (Grades)
Classification of metals:
○ Ferrous Metals – Contains IRON as the main
constituent: Cast Iron, Wrought Iron and Steel
○ Non – Ferrous Metals – DO NOT CONTAIN IRON
as the main constituent: Non ferrous metals have
LIMITED USE IN ENGINEERING &
CONSTRUCTION
 FERROUS METALS – Introduction
Iron (Fe) is the most common metal on the earth
and the most widely used metal
It is element 26, a transition metal in Group 8
Atomic number: 26
Mass number: 55.85
It is used a lot because it is cheap and very
strong
Iron is the main ingredient used to make steel
 FERROUS METALS – Physical Properties
Iron is a lustrous, ductile, malleable silver-grey metal
Iron atoms arrange themselves in one of two stable crystal
structures called the body-centered cubic structure and the
face-centered cubic structure
The body-centered cubic structure of iron, which is called
ferrite, is stable at (i) a temperature of 1,665K (1,392) or
above and (ii) at 1,184K (911) or below, the crystal forms
being referred to as α iron and a iron, respectively
The face-centered cubic structure, which is called austenite,
is stable in a temperature range everywhere between the
above-mentioned two temperature ranges, and the iron of
this structure in this temperature range is called γ iron
 FERROUS METALS – Physical Properties
Iron rusts in damp air but not in dry air and
dissolves readily in dilute acids
It has a very high tensile strength
Boiling Point: 3000 ˚C (5400 ˚F)
Melting Point: 1536 ˚C (2797 ˚F)
 APPLICATIONS & USES OF IRON
Iron is the most widely used of all the metals,
accounting for 95% of worldwide metal production
Its low cost and high strength make it indispensable in
engineering applications such as the construction of
machinery and machine tools, automobiles, the hulls
of large ships, and structural components for buildings
Used to make STEEL as iron is soft
Used in bridges, buildings, skyscrapers and other
infra projects
Uses as appliances in the form of SS
Used in pavements and patios
 DISADVANTAGES OF IRON
Main disadvantage is that iron and most of its
alloys suffer badly from rust if not protected in
some way or the other
Painting, Galvanization, Passivation and Plastic
Coating are some means of protecting iron and its
alloys from rust and corrosion
It is brittle unless is combine with Carbon in some
amount
Processing iron takes a lot of energy and harmful
to the environment
 TYPES OF IRON
Cast Iron
Wrought Iron
Steel as an alloy
 TYPES OF IRON
Iron Ore
Blast Furnace
Pig Iron
Smelted, Hammered, Re- melted, Smelted (separate the metallic

Re- heated, Rolled Poured into sand constituent)
molds ,Alloyed, Rolled
Wrought Iron Cast Iron Mild Iron(Steel)

 TYPES OF IRON – Cast Iron
Cast iron is iron or a ferrous alloy which has
been heated until it liquefies, and is then poured
into a mould to solidify. It is usually made from pig
iron
Cast Iron is the name given to those ferrous
metals containing more than 1.7% of Carbon
Similar in composition to crude pig iron as
produced by the blast furnace
Structure is crystalline and relatively weak and
brittle in tension
 TYPES OF IRON – Cast Iron
Composition of Cast Iron
○ Carbon : 2.5% to 3.7%
○ Silicon: 1.0% to 3.0%
○ Manganese : 0.5% to 1.0%
○ Phosphorus : 0.1% to 0.9%
○ Sulphur : 0.07% to 0.1%
 TYPES OF IRON – Cast Iron – Manufacture
Cast Iron is manufactured by re-melting pig iron with coke and
limestone
This is done in a furnace called the “Cupola Furnace”
The raw materials are fed from the top
Cupola Furnace is worked intermittently and it is open at the top
After raw materials are placed, furnace is fired and blast of air is
forced
Blast of air is hot as the impurities in pig iron are removed by oxidation
Impurities of pig iron are removed and pure iron is taken in the molten
stage from the bottom of the furnace
Slag is also removed from the top of the cast iron at regular intervals
Molten cast iron are led into moulds of required shapes to form what
we know as CAST IRON
 TYPES OF IRON – Cast Iron – Manufacture
 TYPES OF IRON – Cast Iron – Properties
Strong in compression but weak in tension
Tensile and compressive strength of cast iron of average
quality is 150 N/mm2 and 600 N/mm2 respectively
Does not rust easily
If placed in salt water, cast iron becomes soft
Has low melting point
Good fluidity
Hard and brittle at the same time
Not ductile hence it cannot be adopted to absorb shocks and
impacts
Melting temperature is about 1250 ˚C
Shrinks on cooling
 TYPES OF IRON – Cast Iron – Properties
The effect of cooling rate of cast iron can lead to
the following:
○ Slow cooling favors the formation of graphite and
low hardness
○ Rapid cooling promotes carbides with high hardness
○ Thick sections cool slowly while thin sections cool
down quickly
○ Sand moulds cool slowly but metal chills can be
used to increase cooling rate and promotes white
iron
 TYPES OF IRON – Cast Iron – Applications
CI is used in a wide variety of structural and decorative
applications because it is relatively INEXPENSIVE,
DURABLE & EASILY CAST into a variety of shapes
Construction of machines and tools due to high tensile
strength
Can be used as columns, balusters and arches in
construction (High compressive strength)
Machine and car parts like cylinder heads, blocks, gearbox
cases, cookware, pipes etc due to castability
Stoves, fire-backs and vehicle engines due to high thermal
conductivity and specific heat capacity
Used for decorative purposes coz of its fluidity and elasticity
 TYPES OF IRON – Cast Iron – Applications
 TYPES OF IRON – Cast Iron Disadvantages
Cast iron is very heavy and consequently much
harder to install than regular PVC/ABS (Acrylonitrile-
Butadiene-Styrene) sewer pipes
It is quite brittle and will easily break if knocked off
accidentally
Its strength and stiffness deteriorate when subjected
to high heat such as fire
Weak in tension and bending and hence cannot be
used as beams
Can’t overcome from environmental causes and
cannot absorb sudden shocks
 TYPES OF IRON – Cast Iron Early Uses
Cast Iron was used as structural element between
late 1830 and 1910
Cast Iron was the metal of choice throughout the
second half of 19th Century
○ Fire resistance material
○ Large facades could be produced at lesser cost
○ Iron buildings could be erected with speed and
efficiency
Architecturally, cast iron, is used in two ways:
○ Structural Use
○ Architectural Use
 TYPES OF IRON – Cast Iron – The Iron Bridge
Made in Britain – Shropshire – entirely of cast
iron in 1779
Was grossly over-designed and the makers
suffered a huge financial loss
Quality of iron used in the bridge was not high
and nearly 80 brittle cracks are visible in the
present structure
Later improvisation in bridge design and quality
was ensured
The Iron Bridge crosses River Severn in
Shropshire in England
Was the first arch bridge in the world to be made
of cast iron, a material which was too expensive
earlier to have been used in larger structures
Carries pedestrian traffic
Being the first of its sort, the CONSTRUCTION had no precedent; the
method chosen to create the structure was therefore based on carpentry
Each member of the frame was cast separately and fastenings followed
those used in wood working, such as mortise and dovetail joints were
adapted as necessary to the different properties of cast iron
Bolts were used to fasten the half-ribs together at the crown of the arch
Very large parts were needed to create a structure to span 100’-0” rising
to 60’-0” above the river
Largest parts were the half-ribs, each about 70’-0” long and weighing
5.25T
Bridge comprises of more than 800 castings of 12 basic types
Bridge was raised in the summer of 1779 and it was opened on the New
Year’s Day 1781
 TYPES OF IRON – Cast Iron- Other Uses
Cast iron columns had the advantage of being
slender, compared with masonry columns
capable of supporting similar weight
 TYPES OF IRON – Cast Iron- Other Uses
As an architectural metal, it gives architectural
design and building technology, while providing a
richness in ornamentation, much cheaper than
stones
 TYPES OF IRON – Cast Iron- Failure
Oxidation or rusting occurs rapidly when cast iron is
exposed to moisture or air
Casting process also leaves flaws in the cast iron
process such as blow holes, bubbles, imperfectly
joined seams, that serve to concentrate stress in
unpredictable ways
Common problems encountered with cast iron
construction include badly rusted or missing
elements, impact damage, structural failures,
broken joints, damage to connections, loss of
anchorage in masonry
 TYPES OF IRON – Cast Iron- Composition
classifications of cast iron
1. WHITE CAST IRON

2. GRAY CAST IRON
3. DUCTILE (NODULAR) CAST IRON
4. MALLEABLE CAST IRON
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1. WHITE CAST IRON
 These are iron-carbon alloys having more than 2.11%

carbon.
 All the carbon is present in the combined cementite

form, which makes the fracture of these alloys to have
dull and white colour, and that is the reason of their
name as white irons. Microstructure of White
Cast Iron
Composition:
C=2.5%,Mn=0.4%,
Cr=17%,Si=1.3%,
Ni+Cu=1.5%,P=0.15%,
S=0.15%,Mo=0.5%
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Properties of white cast iron
Hard and wear resistant
The hardness and brittleness increases as the carbon content increases.
Hardness Brinell 375 to 600.
Tensile strength 20000 to 70000 psi.
Compressive strength 200000 to 250000.
limitations
Because of extreme brittleness and lack of machinability, white irons find

limited engineering applications.
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applications
Used to Make Malleable Iron

Malleabilize
White Cast Iron �� Malleable Cast Iron
To Increase Ductility
Liners For Cement Mixers, (Wear resistant)

Ball Mills, Toughness
Certain Types Of Drawing Dies
Extrusion Nozzles
 In furnitures (abrasion resistance)

Liners For Cement Mixers
Ball Mills
Decorated furnitures
Nozzles 33
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2. Grey cast iron
Iron-carbon alloys containing flakes of
graphite embedded in steel matrix, which show
a gray-blackish coloured fracture due to
graphite’—the free foam of carbon, are called gray
cast irons.
The strength of gray iron depends on the

strength of steel matrix and the size and character
Microstructure of Gray Cast Iron
of graphite flakes in it.
A typical feature of gray iron is that graphite is in the form of flakes in
microstructure.
COMPOSITION:
Total carbon : 2.4—3.8%
Silicon : 1.2—3.5%
Manganese : 0.5—1.0%
Sulphur : 0.06—0.12%
Phosphorus : 0.1—0.9%
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PROPERTIES OF GREY CAST IRON
1. Low cost of production
2.Low melting point: (1150°—1250°C) of cast irons, several hundred degrees less than
steel.
3. Good Castability: Cast irons have excellent fluidity and take good mould-impressions
easily. Graphite having low density is voluminous. Its large volume compensates for the
shrinkage. Gray iron, thus, does not need shrinkage allowance at all to take almost exact
casting impressions.
4. Good machinability of gray cast iron is due to easy and discontinuous chip
formation due to brittle graphite flakes.
Graphite serves as a solid lubricant decreasing coefficient of friction.
It smears the cutting tool allowing free sliding of chips increasing thus, tool life too.
(White cast irons, due to high hardness, are unmachinable).
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5. Good wear resistance of gray iron is due to graphite acting as solid lubricant layer,
avoiding thereby metal to metal direct contact. On other hand, white cast irons are wear
resistant due to’ their high hardness.
6. High damping capacity is due to the graphite flakes, which breaks the continuity of
the metallic matrix, and thus, vibrations are not allowed to transfer from one side of
flake to other, i.e., graphitic cracks quickly dampen the vibrations and resonance
oscillations. Gray iron suits thus the machine beds as compared to steels.
7. High compressive strength of gray iron- almost 3 to 5 times of its tensile strength
(110-350 N/mm2), and almost equal to that of steels makes it suitable for applications,
where components are subjected to compression such as machine beds, etc.
8. High thermal conductivity, and have ability to withstand thermal shocks.
9.Good resistance to atmospheric corrosion due to high silicon and perhaps other
factors, than mild steels.
10. Notch-insensitive: Large number of flakes in gray iron acts as notches in spite of
these notches, if gray iron has the required strength, then additional notch or notches
shall have minor, or no effect, i.e., gray iron is notch-insensitive; whereas in steels. A
notch has quite a damaging effect as it acts as stress-raiser to make the steel even
brittle.
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applications
Internal Combusion Engine
Pump Housings
Valve Bodies (Low Tensile Strength)
Electrical Boxes
Decorative Castings (Good Castability) Internal combustion engine
Cast iron cookware(High thermal conductivity

Disc brake and specific heat capacity)
Pump Housings
Cast iron cookware disc brake on a car Decorative pattern
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3. Malleable cast iron
Malleable iron is cast as White iron, the structure being a metastable carbide
in a pearlitic matrix.
Graphite in nodular form
Produced by heat treatment of white cast
iron
Graphite nodules are irregular clusters
Similar properties to ductile iron.
Components Percentage
Microstructure of Malleable Iron
Carbon 2.00-2.65
Silicon 0.90-1.40
Manganese 0.25-0.55
Phosphorus Less than 0.18
Sulphur 0.05
Composition of Malleable Iron

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properties
Similar to ductile iron
Good shock resistance
Good ductility
Good machineability
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applications
 Malleable iron is better for thinner castings
 Vehicle components (Good Machinability)
– Power trains, frames, suspensions and wheels
– Steering components, transmission and differential parts,
Power trains
– connecting rods
 Railway components(Good Tensile Strength)
 Pipe fittings
(High ductility)
wheels
Rail tracks Pipe fittings

Steering components in car
4. Ductile (nodule ) cast iron
In ductile irons, the graphite is in the formof spherical nodules rather than
flakes (as in grey iron), thus inhibiting the creation of cracks and providing the
enhanced ductility.
Also known as spheroidal graphite (SG), and nodular graphite iron.
COMPOSITION:
A TYPICAL CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF THIS
MATERIAL
IRON
CARBON 3.3 TO 3.4%
SILICON= 2.2 TO 2.8%
MANGANESE 0.1 TO 0.5%
MAGNESIUM 0.03 TO 0.05%
PHOSPHORUS 0.005 TO 0.04%
Microstructure of Ductile Iron
SULPHUR 0.005 TO 0.02%
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properties
Strength higher than grey cast iron
Ductility up to 6% as cast or 20% annealed
Low cost
Simple manufacturing process makes complex
shapes
Machineability better than steel
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applications
Major industrial applications include
--highway diesel trucks,
--agricultural tractors, (High strength)
--oil well pumps. Tracters
 Pipe and pipe fittings
used for water and sewer lines.
Machinery products:
– Crankshafts, (Good Machinability)
– front wheel spindle supports,
– steering knuckles, Pipes
– disc brake callipers
Crankshafts in motor engineoil well pumps

spindle disc brake callipers
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 TYPES OF IRON – Wrought Iron
Wrought Iron is an iron alloy with a very low
carbon content in contrast to steel and has a
fibrous inclusion known as SLAG
This is what gives it a “grain” resembling wood,
which is visible when it is etched or bent to the
point of failure
Wrought iron is tough, malleable, ductile and
easily welded
 TYPES OF IRON – Wrought Iron – History
Ancient Period – Egypt and Mesopotamia way
back in 3500 BC – ME to Greece to Aegean region
by 1000 BC – western and central Europe by 600
BC
Medieval Period – Ironwork became sophisticated
and highly decorative in 16th century in cathedrals,
balconies, patios of Spain and gateways of France
– Beautiful railings and gates throughout 18th
century in London (Balconies, porches and
verandahs, canopies, roof crests, lamps, grill,
hardware)
ST.PETERSBURG PALACE
Notre dame lamps Roof cresting

• 21st Century - The wrought is replaced to a very great
extent by mild steel.
• It is used where a tough material is required
Used for rivets, chains, ornamental iron work, railway
couplings, water and steam pipes
• It is manufactured for steel, bolts and nuts, horse shoe
bars, handrails, straps for timer roof trusses, boiler
tubes, roofing sheets, armatures, electromagnets etc
In fencing In main entrance gates
In railings As balusters
 TYPES OF IRON – Wrought Iron Properties
 TYPES OF IRON – Wrought Iron Properties
• It becomes soft at while hot and it can be easily forged and
welded.
• It can be used to form temporary magnets but cannot be
magnetised permanently.
• It fuses with difficulty .
• It cannot be adopted for making castings.
• High elasticity and tensile strength
• It is moderately elastic ,ductile, malleable and tough.
• Unaffected by saline water.
• If pulled apart, the fracture shows a fibrous break.
• Suitable for members in tension OR compression; whereas, cast
iron is suitable for members in compression ONLY.
 TYPES OF IRON – Wrought Iron Quality
• Its ability to RESIST CORROSION and fatigue failure. The
slag fibers in wrought iron are present in such great
numbers that they serve in one capacity as an effective
mechanical barrier against corrosion.
• DUCTILITY -its ability to be drawn out.
• MALLEABILITY -its ability to be hammered into shapes.
• DURABILITY and ELEGANCE,
• LOW MAINTAINANCE-Wrought iron is also easy to
maintain and is low in maintenance.
 TYPES OF IRON – Process
 TYPES OF IRON – Wrought Iron Pros
It welds better than does steel
Lasts longer when exposed to weather or to
water
It is better to resist shock and vibration (fatigue),
in use
Its fibrous structure arrests fracture, as its
breaking is in the nature of a gradual tearing,
which often gives warning of a dangerous stress,
while steel breaks suddenly
 TYPES OF IRON – Wrought Iron Cons
Its elastic and tensile strength are lower than
those of steel
Its production is more costly
 Problems & Deterioration
Natural or inherent problems
Vandalism or human induced problems
Problems due to its constituents
 Natural and Inherent Problems
 Chemical corrosion can attack decorative and structural wrought iron features in
several ways:
 1. Uniform Attack: Corrosion attacks the metal surface evenly
 2. Pitting: Attacks the metal surface in selected areas
 3. Selective Attack: When a metal is not homogenous throughout, certain
areas may be attacked in preference to others
 4. Stress corrosion cracking: Attacks areas in a metal which were stressed
during metal working and were later exposed to a corrosive environment
 5. Rust: It occurs when unprotected metal is exposed to oxygen in
the atmosphere in the presence of moisture
 6. Galvanic (or Electro-Chemical) Corrosion: Galvanic corrosion
occurs when two dissimilar metals are in contact with one another and
an electrolyte.
 Natural and Inherent Problems
Pitting attack
Uniform attack
Rust
Selective attack
Galvanic corrosion
 Vandalism or Human Induced Problems
 Mechanical or physical deterioration:
1. Fatigue: Failure of metal that has been repeatedly stressed beyond its elastic limit.
a. Wrought iron is generally fatigue resistant because it is so tough. It will deform

considerably,
within its elastic limit, without failure.
b. Even if past overloading has caused deformation, wrought iron fixings will usually continue
to function.
c. Defects in the wrought iron itself, or stress points can cause a feature to fracture.
2. Heat: Usually in the form of fire, will cause wrought iron features to become plastic, distort, and
fail.
3. Distortion: Permanent deformation or failure may occur when a metal is overloaded beyond its
yield point because of increased live or dead loads, thermal stresses, or structural modifications
altering a stress regime
 Problems due to its constituents
 REDSHORT – It contains sulfur in excess quantity.
 It makes the iron brittle due to formation of iron sulphide.
 It has sufficient tenacity when cold, but cracks when bent or finished at a red
heat. It is therefore useless for welding or forging.
 COLDSHORT-It contains excessive phosphorus.

 It is very brittle when it is cold. It cracks if bent.
 It may, however, be worked at high temperature. Historically, coldshort iron was
considered good enough for nails.
 Defects
CORROSION CRACKS RUSTING
INCLUSIONS
WROUGHT IRON SECTIONS
USES OF WROUGHT IRON
HOME DÉCOR ITEMS
Balconies Baker's racks
Candle holders
wine racks
Lamp
Beds Gates Table bases

EXTERNAL USE
Chains
RIVET Nail
Wire
Horseshoes
Pipes Handrails
WEAPONARY USE OF WROUGHT IRON
 TYPES OF IRON – Steel
Alloys of iron and carbon widely used in construction
and other applications because of their high tensile
strengths and low costs
Carbon content may be 2.1% of weight in steel
Varying the amount of alloy elements controls the
quality of hardness, ductility and the tensile strength of
the resulting steel
Steel is one of the most common materials in the world
with 1.3 billion tons produced annually
Major component in buildings, infrastructure, tools,
ships, automobiles, machines, appliances and weapons
 TYPES OF IRON – Steel
Carbon content of steel is between 0.002% and 2.1%
by weight
Other materials in the composition of alloy include
manganese, chromium, nickel, iron and tungsten
Nickel and Manganese are used in steel to add the
tensile strength
Chromium increase hardness and melting temperature
Tungsten interferes with the formation of cementite
To inhibit corrosion, at least 11% chromium is added to
steel so that a hard oxide forms on the metal surface –
STAINLESS STEEL
 TYPES OF IRON – Steel – Properties
Luster – shiny metal with an attractive finish
(architecture, cutlery and appliances)
Conductivity – transfers heat and electricity
(saucepans)
Malleability – can be rolled into thin sheets, rod,
bar or beams (roofing, structural) or forged into
different shapes (gears, tools)
Ductility – can be stretched and drawn out into
thin wires (wire fences) or pressed into different
shapes (auto body panels)
 TYPES OF IRON – Steel – Properties
Strength – very strong and resistant to fracture (building
frames, security doors, trains, ships)
Durability – long lasting material (buildings, rail lines,
bridges) and resistant to wear (machines and equipment)
Alloying – adding other chemicals change the properties.
SS contains chromium, nickel and molybdenum to make it
rust resistant for use in kitchens. Steel for rods has
tungsten and cobalt to keep it hard even when hot
Coating – Steel can also be coated with different
substances such as other metals like tin or plastics or
paint
 TYPES OF IRON – Steel – Classification
Depending upon the carbon content, steel is
classified into following categories:
○ Dead Steel < 0.15%
○ Mild Steel 0.15% to 0.30%
○ Medium Carbon Steel 0.30% to 0.80%
○ High Carbon Steel 0.80% to 1.50%
○ High Carbon Steel with carbon percentage of over
1% is also known as cast steel or carbon tool steel
 TYPES OF IRON – Steel – Mild Steel
Steel where carbon content is 0.15% to 0.30% is
called mild steel, low carbon steel or soft steel
Ductile and malleable
More tough and more elastic than wrought iron
and cast iron
Corrodes easily
Equally strong in tension and compression
1. In construction work it is chiefly used as rolled
structural sections like I-section, T-section, angle
iron
2. Mild steel round bars are extensively being used
as reinforcement in reinforced cement concrete
3. Plain and corrugated sheets of mild steel are
used as roof covering
4. It is also used in the manufacturing of various
tools and equipments, for rail track, transmission
towers and industrial building
 TYPES OF IRON – Steel – Hi Carbon Steel
Carbon contents is between 0.55 to 1.5%
High percentage of carbon in it renders it harder
and tougher
It is more tough and elastic then mild steel
Comparatively it is more stronger in compression
than in tension
It withstand shocks and vibrations
1. It is used in making tools such as drills, files and
chisels
2. Fine quality of cutlery is made of high carbon
steel
3. It is used to manufacture those parts of
machinery that need a hard, tough, durable
material capable of withstanding shocks and
vibration
 TYPES OF IRON – Steel – Hi Tension Steel
It is essentially a low carbon steel and the percentage
of carbon is kept lesser than 0.15%
It is also termed as high tension steel
Because of increase tensile strength, lesser weight of it
used, as compared to mild steel at the same job
The structure thus becomes lighter
It withstands atmospheric corrosion better
It is tougher and more elastic
It is more brittle and less ductile than mild steel
High tension steel wires are extensively used in
reinforcing pre-stressed concrete structures
 TYPES OF IRON – Steel – Hi Tension Steel
 TYPES OF IRON – Steel – Reinforcing Steel
Plain cement concrete being strong in
compression but weak in tension
Mild steel or high tension steel is embedded as
reinforcement in the concrete to make it stronger
in tension
Though flats and square bars can be used as
reinforcement yet the round bars are extensively
used for the purpose
 TYPES OF IRON – Steel – Reinforcing Steel
 ANTI-CORROSIVE MEASURES – STEEL
Anti-corrosion refers to the protection of metal surfaces from
corroding in high-risk (corrosive) environments
When metallic materials are put into corrosive environments,
they tend to have chemical reactions with the air and/or water
The effects of corrosion become evident on the surfaces of
these materials
Therefore, metal equipment lacking any preventive (anti-
corrosive) measures, may become rusted both inside and
out, depending upon atmospheric conditions and how much
of that equipment is exposed to the air
Anti-corrosion measures are of particular importance in
environments where high humidity, mist, and salt are factors
Steel can be protected effectively by application of a Poly
Ethylene cover of a few mm thickness. This cover can be
applied in the factory and is usually placed on a coating
of epoxy
Steel can be covered with corrosion protection paint
according to standards. Modern paints normally contain
pure epoxy or modified epoxy resin
Cathodic protection with electric current is another way
to protect steel from corrosion
Hot Zinc coating on steel can achieve long-lasting
protection provided that the zinc layer has sufficient
thickness
Anti Corrosive Coatings
○ Anti-corrosive coatings to protect and preserve the
structure of buildings
○ In case of fire, these coatings ensure that the
structure remains intact for longer
○ On surfaces such as facades, they prevent outside
influences such as water or oxygen from causing
corrosion, which would slowly break down the steel
Anti Corrosive Coatings
○ These coatings essentially consist of three layers
 a layer of zinc, which insulates and protects from corrosion
 an epoxy layer, which resists mechanical damage
 a top coat of silicon which stops water from getting in, is
UV-resistant and provides a glossy finish
 Before the coating is applied, the steel is prepared with
power tools or high-pressure jets of garnet or water to
remove any irregularities
 MECH & HEAT TREATMENT – STEEL
Steels can be heat treated to produce a great variety of
microstructures and properties
Generally, heat treatment uses phase transformation
during heating and cooling to change a microstructure in
a solid state
In heat treatment, the processing is most often entirely
thermal and modifies only structure
Thermo mechanical treatments, which modify
component shape and structure, and thermo-chemical
treatments which modify surface chemistry and structure,
are also important processing approaches which fall into
the domain of heat treatment
 MECH & HEAT TREATMENT – STEEL
Heat Treatment – According to cooling rate, there
are two main heat treatment operations:
○ Annealing – upon slower cooling rate (in air or with a
furnace)
○ Quenching – upon faster cooling rate (in oil or in water)
Mechanical Treatment
○ Drawing
○ Forging
○ Pressing
○ Rolling
Heat treatment
Heat treatment - controlled heating and cooling basically
The basic steps of heat treatment are:
Heating → Soaking → Cooling
Handouts 2 87
Heat treatment
Heating -> Soaking -> Cooling
Temperature Time of soaking Rate of cooling
Medium of cooling
- Different combinations of the above parameters

- Different compositions of materials and initial phases of materials
Give rise to different heat treatments
Handouts 2 88
 ANNEALING OF STEEL
Annealing is a heat treatment in which the metal is
heated to a temperature above its recrystallisation
temperature, kept at that temperature some time for
homogenization of temperature followed by very slow
cooling to develop equilibrium structure in the metal or
alloy
The steel is heated 30 to 50oC above Ae3 (equilibrium
transformation) temperature in case of hypo-eutectoid
steels and 30 to 50oC above Acm temperature in case
of hyper-eutectoid temperature
The cooling is done in the furnace itself.
 ANNEALING OF STEEL – Aim
 Increase ductility
 Reduce hardness and brittleness
 Alter microstructure to soften the metal prior to shaping by
improving formability
 Recrystallize cold worked (strain hardened) metals
 Remove internal stresses
 Increase toughness
 Increase machinability
 Decrease electrical resistance
 Improve magnetic properties
 ANNEALING OF STEEL – Stages
Recovery - results in softening of the metal
through removal of primarily linear defects called
dislocations and the internal stresses they cause
Recovery occurs at the lower temperature stage
of all annealing processes and before the
appearance of new strain-free grains
The grain size and shape do not change
 ANNEALING OF STEEL – Stages
Recrystallization - new strain-free grains
nucleate and grow to replace those deformed by
internal stresses
Grain Growth - the micro structure starts to
coarsen and may cause the metal to lose a
substantial part of its original strength
○ This can however be regained with hardening
○ If annealing is allowed to continue once
recrystallization, grain growth occurs
 ANNEALING OF STEEL – Types
1. Full annealing
2. Stress relief annealing
3. Process annealing
4. Spheroidizing annealing
 ANNEALING OF STEEL – Full Annealing
It is heating the steel 30 to 50oC above Ae3 temperature in
case of hypo-eutectoid steels and 30 to 50oC above Acm
temperature in case of hyper-eutectoid (lowest possible
melting) temperature, keeping it at that temperature for
some time for homogenization of temperature followed by
cooling at a very slow rate
The cooling rate may be about 10 deg C per hour
It is to get all the changes in the properties of the metals
like producing equilibrium microstructure, increase in
ductility, reduction in hardness, strength, brittleness and
removal of internal stresses
The microstructure contains coarse ferrite and pearlite
 ANNEALING OF STEEL – Full Annealing
 ANNEALING OF STEEL – Stress Relief
Annealing
In stress relief annealing, the metal is heated to a
lower temperature and is kept at that temperature for
some time to remove the internal stresses followed by
slow cooling
The aim of the stress relief annealing is to remove the
internal stresses produced in the metal due to Plastic
deformation, Non-uniform cooling, Phase
transformation
No phase transformation takes place during stress
relief annealing
 ANNEALING OF STEEL – Spheroidizing
Annealing
In spheroidizing annealing, the steel is heated to
a temperature below A1 temperature, kept at that
temperature for some time followed by slow
cooling
The aim of spheroidizing annealing is to improve
the machinability of steel
In this process the cementite is converted into
spheroidal form
The holding time varies from 15 – 25 hours
 ANNEALING OF STEEL –
ProcessAnnealing
In process annealing, the cold worked metal is
heated above its recrystallisation temperature,
kept for some time followed by slow cooling
The aim of process annealing is to restore
ductility of the cold worked metal
During process annealing, recovery and
recrystallisation takes place
Heat Treatment
Temperature
←Acm
The temperature
ranges to which the
A3→
steel has to be
heated for different
heat treatments
 ANNEALING OF STEEL –
ProcessAnnealing
 Process
 Heat the metal to a temperature
 Hold at that temperature
 Slowly cool
 Purpose
 Reduce hardness and brittleness
 Alter the microstructure for a special property
 Soften the metal for better machinability
 Recrystallize cold worked (strain hardened) metals
 Relieve induced residual stresses
 QUENCHING OF STEEL
 Quenching is the rapid cooling of metal or an alloy from an
elevated temperature
 This is usually done with water, brine, oil, polymer, or even
forced or still air
 There are two types of quenching – the first is cooling to obtain
an acceptable microstructure and mechanical properties that will
meet minimum specs after tempering
 The second consists of rapid cooling of iron-base alloys and
nonferrous metals to retain uniformity in the material
 Quenching is performed to control the transformation of
austentite and to form the microstructure
 When only selected areas of the material are quenched, the
process is called selective quenching
 Soaking temperature 30-50°C above A3 or A1, then fast cooling
(in water or oil) with cooling rate exceeding a critical value
 The critical cooling rate is required to obtain non-equilibrium
structure called martensite
 During fast cooling austenite cannot transform to ferrite and
pearlite by atomic diffusion
 Martensite is supersaturated solid solution of carbon in α-iron
(greatly supersaturated ferrite) with tetragonal body centered
structure
 Martensite is very hard and brittle
 Martensite has a “needle-like” structure
Kinetics of martensite transformation is presented by
TTT diagrams (Time-Temperature-Transformation)
With the quenching-hardening process the speed of
quenching can affect the amount of marteniste formed
This severe cooling rate will be affected by the
component size and quenching medium type (water,
oil)
The critical cooling rate is the slowest speed of
quenching that will ensure maximum hardness (full
martensitic structure)
 QUENCHING OF STEEL – Martensitic
Transformation
 In an alloy, martensite is a metastable transitional structure between two
allotropic modifications whose abilities to dissolve a solute differ, the high
temperature phase having the greater solubility
 The amount of high temperature phase transformed to martensite
depends upon the temperature attained in cooling. Martensite is also a
metastable phase of steel, formed by the transformation of austentite
below a specified temperature
 Martensite is characterized by an interstitial supersaturated solid solution
of carbon in iron having a body-centered tetragonal lattice that resembles
an acicular, needlelike pattern that can be observed in laboratory testing.
 Martensitic transformation is a reaction that takes place in some metals
during the cooling phase causing the formation of the a circular structures
called “martensite
 MECHANICAL TREATMENT OF STEEL
The purpose of giving mechanical treatment to
the steel is to give desired shape to the ingots so
as to make steel available in market forms
The mechanical treatment of steel may be hot
working or cold working
The hot working is very common
Accurate specification of a surface finish is vital
for extracting maximum functionality and
durability from stainless steel components
 DRAWING
 This operation is carried out to reduce the cross-section and to
increase the length proportionately
 In this operation, the metal is drawn through dies or specially
shaped tools
 The drawing is continued till wire of required diameter or cross-
section is obtained
 This process is used to prepare wires and rods
 FORGING
This operation is carried out by repeated blows under a
power hammer or a press
The metal is heated above the critical temperature range
It is then placed on anvil and subjected to blows of a
hammer
This process increases the density and improves grain
size of metal
The riveting belongs to forging operations
The process is used for the manufacture of bolts, camps,
etc.
 FORGING
The steel may be either forged free or die-forged
In the former case, the steel is free to spread in all
directions as it is hammered
In the latter case, the steel flows under the blows of a
hammer to fill the inside of a die and the excess
material is forced out through a special groove and
then it is cut off
The die-forged parts have very accurate dimensions
 FORGING
 PRESSING
This process is useful when a large number of similar
engineering articles are to be produced.
 ROLLING
This operation is carried out in specially prepared rolling
mills
The ingots, while still red hot, are passed in succession
through different rollers until articles of desired shape are
obtained
The various shapes such as angles, channels, flats, joists,
rails, etc. are obtained by the process of rolling
It is possible to prepare joint less pipe with the help of this
process
The solid rod is bored by rollers in stages until the pipe of
required diameter and thickness is obtained
 ROLLING
COMPARISON BETWEEN WROUGHT IRON ,CAST IRON& STEEL
Wrought iron Cast Iron Steel
Composition Purest Contains up to Crude form Midway

0.25% C containing 2-4% C
Melting point 1500 degree Celsius 1200 degree Celsius 1300-1400 degree
Celsius
Hardness Cannot be hardened or Hard, hardened by Can be hardened &

tempered heating & sudden tempered
cooling
Strength compressive strength is Comp. strength 6.3- Comp strength 4.75

2.0 tonnes/sq cm 7.1 tonnes/sq cm -25.2 tonnes/ sq cm
ultimate tensile Ultimate tensile Ultimate tensile
strength 3.15 tonnes/sq strength 1.26 to strength is 5.51 to
cm 1.57tonnes/sq cm. 11.02 t /sq m
Wrought iron Cast Iron Steel
Malleability Tough, malleable, Brittle & cannot Tough, malleable &

Ductility ductile & moderately be welded or Ductile
elastic rolled into sheets
Reaction to Cannot stand heavy Does not absorb Absorbs shocks

sudden shock shocks shocks
Welding Easily welded Brittle and cannot Can be welded

be welded or
rolled into sheets
 MARKET FORMS OF STEEL
STRUCTURAL STEEL
STAINLESS STEEL
STEEL ALLOYS
THEIR PROPERTIES AND USES
Angle Sections
Channel Sections
Corrugated Sheets
Expanded Metal
Flat Bars
I Sections
Plates
Ribbed Torsteel Bars
Round Bars
Square Bars
T Sections
Angle Sections
○ Have equal or unequal legs
○ Equal angle sections are available in sizes varying
from 20mm x 20mm x 3mm to 200mm x 200mm x
25mm
○ Corresponding weights per meter length is 9N & 736N
○ Unequal sections are available in sizes varying from
30mm x 20mm x 3mm to 200mm x 150mm x 18mm
○ Corresponding weights are 11N & 469N
○ Extensively used in structural steelwork especially in
the construction of steel roof trusses and filler joist
floors
Angle Sections
Channel Sections
○ Consists of a web with two equal flanges
○ Designated by the height of web and width of flange
○ Available in sizes varying from 100 mm x 45 mm to 400 mm
x 100 mm and the corresponding weights per meter length
are respectively 58 N and 494 N
The Bureau of Indian standards has classified channel
sections as junior channel, light channel and medium
channel (based on weight) and accordingly they are
designated as L.S.J.C., I.S.L.C. and I.S.M.C. respectively
The channel sections are widely used as the structural
members of the steel framed structures
Channel Sections
Corrugated Sheets
○ Formed by passing steel sheets through grooves
○ These grooves bend and press steel sheets and
corrugations are formed on the sheets
○ These corrugated sheets are usually galvanized
and they are referred to as the galvanized iron
sheets or G.I. sheets
○ These sheets are widely used for roof covering
Expanded Metal
○ This form of steel is available in different shapes
and sizes
○ It is prepared from sheets of mild steel which are
machine cut and drawn out or expanded
○ A diamond mesh appearance is thus formed
throughout the whole area of the sheet
○ The expanded metal is widely used for reinforcing
concrete in foundations, roads, floors, bridges, etc.
It is also used as lathing material
Expanded Metal
Flat Bars
○ Flat bar is a kind of steel product bearing rectangle
section, with the range of width from 12 to 300 mm
and that of thickness from 4 to 60mm
○ The specification can be described by the unit of
thickness width
○ Flat bar can be either used as hot-rolled finished
product or billet cut from plate
I Sections & T Sections
○ Used in beams and floors
-Plates for
machining, bridges
fastening, grills etc
- Round bars for
agri, automation,
AEC
- Square bars in
nuts and bolts
- Tor steel for
reinforcement and
construction
 STRUCTURAL STEEL
Structural steel is steel construction material, a
profile, formed with a specific shape or cross
section and certain standards of chemical
composition and mechanical properties
Structural steel shape, size, composition,
strength, storage, etc., is regulated in most
industrialized countries
 STRUCTURAL STEEL – Common Shapes
I Beam
Z Beam
HSS/Hollow Structural Section
Angle Section
Structural C or C cross section
T shaped c/s
Asymmetrical I beam
Bar
Rod
Plate, metal sheets
Open web steel joists
 STRUCTURAL STEEL – Properties
 STRUCTURAL STEEL – Mech Properties
Yield Strength - The yield strength of structural
steel measures the minimum force required to
create a permanent deformation in the steel
 STRUCTURAL STEEL – Mech Properties
Tensile Strength - The Tensile Strength of
Structural steel relates to the point at which
permanent deformation occurs when the material
is pulled or stretched laterally along its length
 STRUCTURAL STEEL – Other Properties
High Strength - AEC
High Ductility – preferred in EQ prone areas
Uniformity - superior
Environmental Friendly – recyclable and environmental friendly
Versatility – fasten using weld, bolts and rivets
Prefabrication – planning, save time, speedy erection and better
quality
Permanence – last indefinitely
Additions to existing structures – repair and retrofitting is easier
Least disturbance to the community – far less environmental
pollution
Maintenance Cost, fire-proofing cost, bucking and fatigue are
disadvantages
 STRUCTURAL STEEL – Uses
Buildings – rigid, semi-rigid, simple connected frames,
load bearing walls, cable stayed and cantilevered
structures
Bridges – truss, arch, cantilevered, cable stayed,
suspension bridges
Towers – lighting towers, transmission towers,
observation towers, towers for TV & radio installation,
telephone relay towers and windmill towers
Water Tanks – rectangular, circular or spherical to store
water or oil
Other structures like silos, domes, folded plates, off shore
platforms, chimneys, cooling towers
 STAINLESS STEEL
An alloy with a minimum of 10.5% Chromium content by
mass
Also known as “inox steel” or “inox” from the French word
“inoxydable”
Stainless steel does not readily corrode, rust or stain with
water as ordinary steel does
However, it is not fully stain-proof in low-oxygen, high-
salinity, or poor air-circulation environments
There are different grades and surface finishes of stainless
steel to suit the environment the alloy must endure
Stainless steel is used where both the properties of steel
and corrosion resistance are required
 STAINLESS STEEL
Stainless steel differs from carbon steel by the amount of
chromium present
Unprotected carbon steel rusts readily when exposed to air and
moisture
This iron oxide film (the rust) is active and accelerates corrosion
by forming more iron oxide; and, because of the greater volume
of the iron oxide, this tends to flake and fall away
Stainless steels contain sufficient chromium to form a passive
film of chromium oxide, which prevents further surface corrosion
by blocking oxygen diffusion to the steel surface and blocks
corrosion from spreading into the metal's internal structure, and,
due to the similar size of the steel and oxide ions, they bond
very strongly and remain attached to the surface
 STAINLESS STEEL – Composition
Chromium
○ Forms a passive surface film to make SS resistant to
corrosion
○ Increases the scaling resistance, tensile strength and
water resistance
Manganese
○ Improves hot-working properties
○ Up to 2% has no effect on strength, ductility and
toughness
○ Above 2% increases yield strength and tensile strength
○ Important as a partial replacement of nickel
Molybdenum
○ Increases creep resistance; strength at high temperatures;
and corrosion resistance, particularly in sulfite, sulfate, acetic
acid and acetate solutions and in a salt-water atmosphere
○ Expands range of passivity and counteracts tendency to pit
Nickel
○ Stabilizes the austenitic structure
○ Increases high-temperature strength; ductility, which makes
stainless steel easier to form; and corrosion resistance,
particularly in industrial and marine atmospheres and the
chemical-, food- and textile-processing industries
Silicon
○ Increases scaling resistance by forming a tight initial scale
that will withstand cyclic temperature changes; also slightly
increases tensile strength and hardness
○ Resists carburizing at high temperatures
○ When 1% or more, improves resistance to strong sulfuric
acid but offers little improvement for dilution and is
unfavorable in nitric-acid service
○ Ductility decreases with increase in Silicon
Sulphur, Phosphorous & Selenium
○ Increases machinability
○ Decreases ductility and transverse tensile strength.
Titanium, Columbium & Tantalum
○ Prevents inter-granular corrosion by stabilizing the
carbon as titanium or columbium carbides
○ Produces finer grain size
○ Reduces stretcher strains from drawing and forming
by their addition
 STAINLESS STEEL – Grades
 STAINLESS STEEL – Properties
Superior aesthetics
Tough and durable
Weldable and easily formable
Highly corrosion resistant
Choice of colorful coating
Fire resistant
Low maintenance
High strength to weight ratio
Low life cycle cost
 STAINLESS STEEL – Grade Selection
 STAINLESS STEEL – Applications
Roofing
Cladding & Paneling (column cladding, interior
paneling and curtain wall)
Door frames and shutters
Railings and balustrades
Signages, street furniture and sculptures
Waterlines
Structural
Water tanks and building accessories
 STAINLESS STEEL – Applications
 TYPES OF STEEL JOINTS – CURRENT
DEVELOPMENT
 INTRODUCTION
Connections are structural elements used
for joining different members of a structural
steel frame work
Steel Structure is an assemblage of different
members such as “BEAMS,COLUMNS”
which are connected to one other, usually at
member ends fasteners, so that it shows a
single composite unit.
Components Of Connections
 Bolts
 Weld
 Connecting Plates
 Connecting Angles
Classification of Connections
 On the Basis of Connecting Medium.
 According to the type of internal forces.
 According to the type of structural Elements
 According to the type of members joining

On the Basis of Connecting Medium
 Riveted Connections
 Bolted Connections
 Welded Connections
 Bolted-Welded Connections
Riveted Connections
 Used for very long time.
 Made up of:
Round Ductile steel bar called shank.
A head at one end
The length of the rivet should be sufficient to form the

second head.
 Design - very similar to bearing type of

bolted connection.
Installation
 Heating of the rivet
 Inserting it to an oversize hole pressure to the

head.
 Squeezing the plain End by Pneumatic driver
Round head.
 On Cooling Reduces in
Length–Clamping Force
Riveting is no longer used…
 The introduction of high strength structural

bolts.
 The labour costs associated with large
riveting crews
 The cost involved in careful inspection and
removal of poorly installed rivets.
 The high level of noise associated with
driving rivets.
Bolted Connections
 Fastened Together primarily by Bolts. Primarily to
withstand the tensile loading
 Bolts may be loaded in:

Tension
Shear
Both Tension & Shear
 Threads of bolts under shear force:

Excluded - Increased strength
Included - Decreased strength.
Types Of Bolts
 Bearing type bolts
 High strength friction grip bolts (HSFG)

 The most common type is bearing bolts in
clearance holes, often referred to as
1. Black Bolts
 Ordinary, unfinished, rough, or common bolts.

 Least Expensive
 Primarily - Light structures under static load such
as small trusses, purlins etc
2. Turned Bolts
 Similar to unfinished bolts.

 Shanks - Hexagonal Rods
 Primarily - Light structures under static load such
as small trusses, purlins etc
 Expensive – Limited use – Structures with no
Slippage Connections
3. Ribbed Bolts
• Round head similar to Rivets.

• Raised ribs parallel to the shank.
• Actual Diameter - slightly Larger than the hole
• Tightly fit into the hole.
• Popular - Economical in Material &
Installation
High Strength Friction Grip (HSFG)
 Uses when bearing type bolts slips under shear

 High strength bolts (8G or 10K grade) Pre-
tensioned against the plates to be bolted together
so that contact pressure developed between the
plates being joined
 Prevents relative slip when extra shear is applied
 Higher Shear Resistance.
Advantages
1. The bolting operation is very silent

2. Bolting is a cold process hence there is no risk of fire
3. Bolting operation is more quicker than riveting.
4. Less man power is required in making the connections.
Disadvantages
1. If subjected to vibratory loads, results in reduction in
strength get loosened.
2. Unfinished bolts have lesser strength because of non
uniform diameter
Welded Connections
 whose components are joined together
primarily by welds.
Welding Notations were developed by

American Welding Society (AWS).
Types of welds
 Bead
 Groove
 Fillet
 Surfacing
 Tack
 Plug
 Slot
 Resistance
Bead weld
 Produced by a single
pass
 Stinger Bead- which
is made without
weaving motion.
 Weave Bead- made
by side-side
oscillation
Groove weld
 Groove welds are
simply welds made
in the groove
between two
members to be
joined.
Surfacing welds
 a surfacing weld is
composed of one or more
stringer or weave beads.
Surfacing, sometimes
known as hardfacing or
wearfacing.
 is often used to build up
worn shafts, gears, or cutting
edges.
Fillet weld
 This weld is used to
join two surfaces that
are at approximately
right angles to each
other in a lap, tee, or
comer joint
Plug and Slot weld
 are welds made
through holes or
slots in one member
of a lap joint.
Tack weld
 is a weld made to hold parts
of an assembly in proper
alignment temporarily until
the final welds are made.
 they are normally between
1/2 inch to 3/4 inch in length,
but never more than 1 inch in
length.
Basic Welding Positions
Positions of the welds
 Horizontal
 Vertical
 Overhead
 Flat
Advantages
 Economical – Cost of materials and labor

 Efficiency is 100% as compared to rivets (75-
90%)
 Fabrication of Complex Structures – Easy – like
Circular Steel pipes.
 Provides Rigid Joints – Modern Practice is of
Rigid Joints.
Disadvantages
 No provision for expansion or contraction
therefore greater chances of cracking.
 Uneven heating and cooling - member may

distort - may result in additional stresses.
 Inspection is difficult and more costlier than

rivets
Bolted- Welded
Connections
 Most connections are Shop Welded and
Field Bolted types.
 More Cost Effective

 Better Strength &
Ductility characteristics –Fully welded.
According to the type of internal forces
 Shear (semi rigid, simple) connections
 Moment (rigid) connections

Shear (semi rigid, simple) connections
 Allows the beam end to rotate without a

significant restraint.
 Transfers shear out of beam
 Most Common Types:
Double clip
Shear End Plate
Fin Plate
Moment (rigid) connections
 Designed to resist both Moment and Shear.

 Often referred - rigid or fully restrained connections
• Provide full continuity between the connected
members
• Designed to carry the full factored moments.
 Principal Reason - buildings has to resist the

effect of lateral forces such as wind and
earthquake.
Bolted splice Moment Connection
Field Bolted Moment Connection

According to the type of structural Elements
 Single plate angle Connections
 Double web angle connections
 Top and seated angle connections
 Seated beam connections
Single plate angle Connections
Two Step Process

 A plate is welded to secondary section (beam)
 An Angle is welded to Primary Section (column
or Beam)
 single shear plate welded to secondary
beam and bolted to Primary beam or column.
Double web angle connections
 Two angles welded or shop bolted to the web

of a secondary beam.
 After erection the angles are bolted or site
welded to the primary member (beam or
column).
Top and seated angle connections
 Generally used in case of moment connections.

 Two angles are provided at top and bottom of
the beam to resist moment.
 Generally used for lesser moments where
heavy loads are not acting
Seated beam connections
 Generally used in case of shear connections.

 A seating angle - at bottom of secondary
beam - shop welded to the primary member.
 Seating angle resists vertical shear coming
from the beam.
According to the type of members joining
 Beam to beam connections
 Column to column connections
(column splices)
 Beam to Column Connections
 Column Base Plate Connections
Beam to beam connections
Two Types
 Primary Beam to Secondary Beam Connection
 Beam Splice
Column to column connections
(column splices)
 Connects column to column.
 Column splice comes under this category.
 Used to connect column sections of different
sizes.
 Splices - designed for both moment
and shear unless intended to
utilize the splices as internal
hinges.
Beam to Column
Connections
 Connects Beam to column.
 Very Common
 A wide range of different types are used

Fin Plates
End Plates
Web or Flange Cleats
Hunched Connections
 Beams are normally attached using two or
more bolts through the web.
End plate connections
 single plate welded to the end of the beams
 Bolted to the column flange or web - two or
bolts pair.
Fin plate connections
 Single Plate welded to the Column.
 Beams are normally attached using two or more
bolts through the web.
Column Base Plate Connections
 Steel plates placed at the bottom of Columns.

 Function - to transmit column loads to the
concrete pedestal.
 The design of a column base plate:
determining the size of the plate.
determining the thickness of the plate
 A layer of grout should be placed between
the base plate and its support for the
purpose
of leveling.
 Anchor bolts should be
provided to stabilize the
column during erection
or to prevent uplift.
 Usually cost of fabrication and erection
constitute as high as 50% of the total
cost of steel structures, per tones of
material used
 PLATES
Types of joints
Drawings in Steel Doors
Drawings in Steel Windows – Operable and Fixed
Drawings in Steel Grills and Gates – Design of
steel grills
Drawings in Steel Collapsible Gates and Steel
Rolling Shutters

Unit 2 - Ferrous Metals

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Unit 2 - Ferrous Metals

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UNIT 2 – FERROUS METALS

Smelted, Hammered, Re- melted, Smelted (separate the metallic

molds ,Alloyed, Rolled

Wrought Iron Cast Iron Mild Iron(Steel)

1. WHITE CAST IRON

 These are iron-carbon alloys having more than 2.11%

 All the carbon is present in the combined cementite

The hardness and brittleness increases as the carbon content increases.

Hardness Brinell 375 to 600.

Tensile strength 20000 to 70000 psi.

Compressive strength 200000 to 250000.

Because of extreme brittleness and lack of machinability, white irons find

Used to Make Malleable Iron

Liners For Cement Mixers, (Wear resistant)

 In furnitures (abrasion resistance)

The strength of gray iron depends on the

Cast iron cookware(High thermal conductivity

Cast iron cookware disc brake on a car Decorative pattern

Composition of Malleable Iron

Rail tracks Pipe fittings

Also known as spheroidal graphite (SG), and nodular graphite iron.

Crankshafts in motor engineoil well pumps

Notre dame lamps Roof cresting

In fencing In main entrance gates

a. Wrought iron is generally fatigue resistant because it is so tough. It will deform

 COLDSHORT-It contains excessive phosphorus.

CORROSION CRACKS RUSTING

Balconies Baker's racks

Beds Gates Table bases

Heat treatment - controlled heating and cooling basically

The basic steps of heat treatment are:

Heating → Soaking → Cooling

Heating -> Soaking -> Cooling

Temperature Time of soaking Rate of cooling

- Different combinations of the above parameters

Give rise to different heat treatments

Composition Purest Contains up to Crude form Midway

Hardness Cannot be hardened or Hard, hardened by Can be hardened &

Strength compressive strength is Comp. strength 6.3- Comp strength 4.75

Malleability Tough, malleable, Brittle & cannot Tough, malleable &

Reaction to Cannot stand heavy Does not absorb Absorbs shocks

Welding Easily welded Brittle and cannot Can be welded

 According to the type of internal forces.

 According to the type of structural Elements

 According to the type of members joining

The length of the rivet should be sufficient to form the

 Design - very similar to bearing type of

 Inserting it to an oversize hole pressure to the

 The introduction of high strength structural

 Bolts may be loaded in:

 Threads of bolts under shear force:

 Bearing type bolts

 High strength friction grip bolts (HSFG)

 Ordinary, unfinished, rough, or common bolts.

 Similar to unfinished bolts.

• Round head similar to Rivets.

 Uses when bearing type bolts slips under shear

1. The bolting operation is very silent

Welding Notations were developed by

 Economical – Cost of materials and labor

 Uneven heating and cooling - member may

 Inspection is difficult and more costlier than

 More Cost Effective