EEL 6591 Wireless Networks: Cellular Concepts and Design Fundamentals Rappaport: Chapter 1 & 2 &3 Lin: Chapter 1

Wireless Information Networking Group (WING)
EEL 6591
Wireless Networks
Cellular Concepts and Design

Fundamentals
Rappaport: Chapter 1 & 2 &3

Lin: Chapter 1
Introduction
• Earliest wireless communications system: as early
as the occurrence of vocal interaction--the very
existence of living creature
• Example:
– Given more than one communication entity, build a
communication system among them
– Need something M meaningful to all (signals)
– Need something C to carry M (transmission media)
– Any one can understand what is being delivered
(protocols)
Wireless
• Transmission media
– Light (e.g., smoke, flashlight, infrared)
– Radio (e.g., AM, FM, microwave, …)
– Sound (our daily routine)
• Transceiver--Transmitter and Receiver (e.g., mouth and ear)
• Power is limited: communication range is then limited
• Bandwidth is limited: capacity is bounded
• Media is noisy (due to fading or interference): need more
processing
Wireless Applications
• Broadcast: AM & FM radio, TV
• Point-to-Point: Garage door opener, remote
control for entertainment equipment, Walkie-
Talkie, remote controlled toys, cordless phone
• Point-to-multi-point: pager (beeper)
• Applications with more functionality
– paging
– cordless phones: home use, public places
– cellular phones: voice only, voice with some data,
multimedia (voice, data with flexible rate, auido &
video, images, …)
– iPhones, iPad, …
Mobile Radiotelephone in U.S.

• First natural application was phone service
• Bell Telephone Lab developed AMPS (Advanced
Mobile Phone Systems): frequency as channel
– uplink: 824-849 MHz (BW=25 MHz)
– downlink: 869-894 Mhz (BW=25 MHz)
• IS-54/GSM (TDMA based 2G): time slot as channel
• IS-95 (CDMA-based 2G): code as channel
• Personal Communications Systems (PCS): the PCS
band: 2GHz band and 2.4GHz band
Mobile Radiotelephone in World

• 1G
– E-TACS (UK): 900MHz
– NMT-450 (Nordic countries): 450-470MHz
– NMT-900
– C-450 (Germany)
– JTACS (Japan) : 900MHz
– NTT: 400/800 MHz
• Everybody followed U.S.
– USA was indeed the leader!
Mobile Radiotelephone in World

• 2G
– GSM: the European standard, took the leadership from
US
– DCS-1800: PCS counterpart
– PDC: Japan --> famous DoCoMo I-mode
• Cordless: CT, CT-2, PHS, DECT
• European dominated!
• 2.5G: GPRS and EDGE
• 3G has the similar infrastructure except some new
technologies in improving data rate, service
integration, inter-operability
• 4G: originally integration of cellular and wi-fi,
then integration and harmonization  data rate
Mobile Cellular Radio Systems

• Terminology
– mobile: any radio terminal that could be moved during
operation. In most literature, the following can be
interchangeably used: mobile host, mobile terminal,
portable, subscriber or subscriber unit, users or mobiles
– base station: a fixed transmitting and receiving facility
connected to commercial power source and fixed
backbone network (such as Public Switched Telephone
Network --PSTN)
– MSC: Mobile Switching Center, the router, the
switching facility connected to PSTN and base stations
Mobile Cellular Radio Systems

•
Cellular Infrastructure
• Service coverage is divided into smaller area,
called cell
• Each cell is equipped with fixed transmitting and
receiving devices (transceivers), called base
station (BS)
• Each base station is connected a switching center,
called mobile switching center (MSC)
• Each MSC is directly connected to public
infrastructure (such as PSTN)
Base Station
• CDMA (MSC)
MSC
• CDMA (Nortel)
PCS Architecture
Call Origination (Call Out)

• A mobile station (MS) contact a BS which is strongest in
power (serving base station)
• MS transmits its Mobile Identification Number (MIN), its
Electronic Serial Number (ESN) and the called phone
number
• BS sends these data to the MSC via wireline connection
• MSC finds the terminating switch (EO for wired or MSC
for wireless) of the called party via connection finding
operation in PSTN
• Terminating switch finds the called party via paging
• Connection is established
Call Termination (Call In)

• Caller’s terminating switch finds the MSC of the
callee using MIN,ESN,callee’s phone number
• Upon receiving these numbers, MSC will page its
charging area (send paging message to all BSs)
and BSs will send a message on their paging
channels for the callee
• The MS being paged will respond to BS, then
MSC
• Connection is then established
Cellular Concept
• Beauty of Nature: one’s meat is another poison!
• What if there is no power degradation for a
transmitted signal? Impossible to communicate!
• Transmission range is LIMITED: the possibility
of cellular concept!
• Examples:
– Daily conversation: by lowering voice, a room could
accommodate more simultaneous conversations
– AM & FM radios, TV: radios or TV at different places
far apart can provide different programs on the same
channel
Power Propagation
Signal Detection
• A signal at base station in a cell can be detected

and recovered if SIR >= SIR_th
Frequency Reuse
• Idea: the same frequency channels can be reused in cells
far apart (so long as the interference within the tolerable
margin)
• Cellular structure: overall frequency spectrum are sliced
into channels, neighbouring cells or cells “close to’’ each
others are using different channels, which do not interfere
with each other, each base station is equipped with a
group of distinct channels
• Frequency reuse or frequency planning or frequency
allocation
Frequency Reuse
• Footprint: the actual coverage of a base station
• Cell shape: irregular in nature due to geography,
propagation environment, transmitting
equipment, … triangle, square, circle etc. For
analysis, hexagon is used
• Position of base station: (hexagonal layout)
– Center: omni-directional (center-excited cell)
– On three of the six cell vertices: directional (edge-
excited cell)
Hexagonal Layout
• Seven-cell frequency reuse scheme
•
Frequency Planning
• Consider S total duplex channels in the system,
which are divided into N groups, each group of k
channels is allocated to a cell
– S=kN
• Cluster: N cells which collectively use the
complete set of available frequency channels
• If a service area has M replications of cluster of N
cells, the total number of duplex channels which
can be used in the whole system:
– C = M (kN) = MS
i.e., each channel will be reused M times
Frequency Planning
• Frequency reuse factor: 1/N
• Cluster size: N -- N-cell reuse
• N only assumes certain values:
• Interpretation: To find the co-channel cells, move i

cells along any chain of hexagons, then turn 60
degree counter-clockwise and move j cells
Finding Co-channels
•
Example
• Spectrum: 33 MHz, use FDD, 25 kHz simplex
channel (50 kHz duplex channel). Compute the
number of channels available per cell if a system
uses (a) 4-cell reuse, (b) 7-cell reuse, (c) 12-cell
reuse.
• Solution: S=33 MHz/50 kHz=660, k=S/N so
– (a). 660/4=165
– (b). 660/7=95
– (c). 660/12=55
Design Issues
• Channel assignment
• Mobility management
– Location management
– Handoff strategies
• Call admission control (Resource allocation)
• Interference and system capacity
– Power control
• Trunking and grade of service (GoS)
• Capacity improvement
– Cell splitting
– Sectorization
– Power control
Channel Assignment
• Fixed
– Each cell is allocated a predetermined set of voice
channels
– Channel borrowing schemes supervised by MSC
• Dynamic
– Channels are not allocated to different cells
permanently, each call requests channels from MSC
– Require the MSC to collect real-time data on
• channel occupancy
• traffic distribution
• RSSI: radio signal strength indications of all channels
• mobile speed and direction
Handoff
• Handover (European usage)
• Definition: a process of transfer one base station
or a channel to another
• Necessity: when a mobile moves from a cell to
another, power from serving base station in the
old cell may become weak, the base station in the
new cell has stronger power in serving the call
– Identifying the new serving base station
– Voice and control signaling at the new BS
Handoff
• Decide when to hand off: too early may lead to too many
handoffs, too late may lead to call dropping
• Measurement of received signals: may use the difference
between the received signal power and the minimum
required signal power
• Handoff area: the boundary area between cells, where
handoff may be necessary
• Moving speed: useful in handoff decision
• Cell residence time (dwell time): the time spent by a
mobile in a cell, useful for GoS design
Handoff
Handoff Strategies
• Mobile-initiated handoff strategies
– mobile makes a handoff decision based on its power
measurement
• Network-initiated
– BS monitors the signal power on the reverse voice
channels
– Locator receiver is controlled by MSC and monitors
the signal strengths of mobiles in neighboring cells
– Handoff decision is made by MSC
• Combined handoff schemes
– Mobile-Assisted Handoff (MAHO)
– Inter-system handoff
Handoff Strategies
• Handoff types
– hard handoff: a call served by one BS at any time
– soft handoff: can be simultaneously served by multiple
BSs
• Hierarchical handoff strategy
– microcell and macrocell concept: PCS cell as microcell
while AMPS (high tower BS) as macrocell, satellite as
macrocell etc
– slower mobile is served by microcell while fast mobile is
served by macrocell---reduce handoff rate
– handoff prediction may be useful!
Call Admission Control (CAC)

and Handoff Prioritization
• Decide whether a new call is accepted and how
handoff calls are handled
• Guard channel scheme: a number of channels is
set aside for handoff calls
– new calls are accepted only when the number of busy
channels is less than a threshold
• Queueing priority schemes
– queueing handoff requests while blocking new calls
• Objective: minimizes the call dropping while
keeps the call blocking under control
Interference
• Adjacent channel interference
– Out-of-band user interference
– Receiver imperfection
• Co-channel interference
– Frequency reuse leads to co-channel interference
– CDMA uses the same frequency band (channel)!
– Downlink interference is more serious problem
– Major bottleneck in increasing system capacity
– May lead to dropped calls
– Co-channel cells: the ones using the same channel
System Capacity
• Cellular system is interference-limited: increasing
one’s transmitting power may increase
interference to others (e.g., at party)
• System capacity: maximum total number of
customers can be supported in the whole system
(will be clear in the future lecture)
• Limitation on system capacity:
– interference!
– minimum SIR: a minimum required SIR for reasonable
voice conversation
System Capacity
• Simplified analysis
– Assume the same cell size, same transmitting power
from each BS
– R: cell radius, D: frequency reuse distance (the
distance between the centers of co-channel cells)
– Co-channel reuse ratio Q=D/R, where
System Capacity
• Let i0 denote the number of co-channel interfering
cell
System Capacity
• Smaller value of Q provides larger capacity
• Larger value of Q improves transmission quality
(less interference)
• Tradeoff is needed!
• Example 3.2 in Rappaport’s book
Power Control
• In TDMA, co-channel interference is controlled
by power control
– MS power is also controlled for ongoing calls
– BS interference seems to be more severe!
• In CDMA, MS transmission powers are
controlled: all mobile use the same channel
– need to control the interference
– need to control the near-far effect: nobody should be
power-dominating
Trunking
• Trunking: a concept from POTS, a kind of multiplexing or
resource sharing, a mathod allowing a large number of
users to share a relatively small number of channels
• In cellular systems, channels at BS are shared by any user
in the cell on a per call basis: a user is granted a channel
(if available) upon request, after the call termination, the
channel will be returned to the channel pool at BS
• Will use the statistical behavior of mobile users
• Queueing may be used for requests
Grade of Service (GoS)

• A Quality of Service (QoS) parameter: for voice
calls only
• Trunking theory (and Queueing Theory)
• GoS: a measure of the ability of user to access a
trunked system during the busiest hour. It is
typically given as the blocking probability or the
probability of a call experiencing a delay greater
than a certain tolerable queueing time
• Will be discussed in more detail in future
Grade of Service (GoS)

• Blocking probability (blocked-call-clear policy)
GoS
• GoS with queueing policy
GoS
• Trunking efficiency: a measure of number of
users which can be offered a particular GoS with
a particular configuration of fixed channels,
which can be found by the ratio of total traffic
supported with the GoS to total number of
channels
• Examples: (in Rappaport)
– Example 3.4
– Example 3.6
• Self-study: Example 3.5, 3.7
Capacity Improvements
• Cell-splitting: raising your voice does not help,
but lowering your voice does
• Sectoring: directing your voice also helps (use
your hand when you talk to your neighbors)
Cell Splitting
• Cell splitting: a process of subdividing a
congested area into smaller cells, each with its
own BS of lower antenna and lower transmitting
powermicrocells
• PCS cells can be regarded as the consequence of
AMPS cell splitting
– MS shrinks in size
– less interference
– lower power consumption
• Rescaling the system: decreasing R and keeping the Q
unchanged
Cell Splitting
• BSs on the corners
• Antenna downtilting
Sectoring
• Keeping cell radius R unchanged and decreasing
frequency reuse factor Q=D/R or reducing the
number of interfering cells (co-channel cells)
• Using directional antenna! --sectorization
Sectorization
Sectorization
• The number of interfering BS will decrease: 120
degree sectoring reduces from 6 to 2
• SIR can be increased significantly
• Disadvantage: no pain, no gain
– handoff rate increases: sector to sector
– the number of antennas increases
– trunking efficiency decreases
• Adaptive sectorization is possible: adapt to
change of traffic
Reading
• Chapter 1, 2 and 3 in Rappaport’s book
• Websites of the big players: Nortel, Qualcomm,
Nokia, Ericsson, Sprint PCS, AT&T, Motorola,
MCI /Worldcom etc
• Search for 3GPP and 3GPP2 for standard
harmonization

EEL 6591 Wireless Networks: Cellular Concepts and Design Fundamentals Rappaport: Chapter 1 & 2 &3 Lin: Chapter 1

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EEL 6591 Wireless Networks: Cellular Concepts and Design Fundamentals Rappaport: Chapter 1 & 2 &3 Lin: Chapter 1

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Wireless Information Networking Group (WING)

Cellular Concepts and Design

Rappaport: Chapter 1 & 2 &3

Mobile Radiotelephone in U.S.

Mobile Radiotelephone in World

Mobile Radiotelephone in World

Mobile Cellular Radio Systems

Mobile Cellular Radio Systems

Call Origination (Call Out)

Call Termination (Call In)

• A signal at base station in a cell can be detected

• Interpretation: To find the co-channel cells, move i

Call Admission Control (CAC)

Grade of Service (GoS)

Grade of Service (GoS)

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