Topic 3 : Network Theorems

3.1 Superposition Theorem

3.2 Thevenin’s Theorem
3.3 Norton’s Theorem
3.4 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
3.1 Superposition Theorem

• The voltage/current values of elements in a linear

circuit which contains several sources (voltage or
current) can be determined using the following
methods:
(i) Nodal / Mesh Analysis
(ii) Superposition

• Nodal / mesh analysis directly analyses the circuit

without changing the original configuration of the
circuit.
– However, the calculation involved will become
tedious if the circuit is complex.

• Norton’s and Thevenin’s theorem are able to simplify the

analysis of complex circuit.
3.1 Superposition Theorem

• Superposition principle
It states that the voltage across (or current through) an
element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of
voltages across (or currents through) the element due to
each source acting independently.

– The contribution of each independent source is

considered individually. Consider one
independent source at a time while other
independent sources are turned off.
– Dependent sources are left intact.
3.1 Superposition Theorem
Steps to apply Superposition Theorem:
1. Take one source & turn off all other sources
-Short circuit a Voltage source
-Open circuit a Current source

Short circuit Voltage source Open circuit Current source

2. Determine the contribution/output (voltage/current) of the active

source.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 for other independent sources.
4. Sum the total contribution of each source.
-Add voltages/currents in same direction
-Subtract voltages/currents in opposite direction
3.1 Superposition Theorem

Example 1:
Apply superposition to find i in the circuit.
3.1 Superposition Theorem

Solution:
1. Consider the independent voltage source. The
current source is turned off.

2. Current through the 4Ω resistor due to the voltage

source,

20
i1 = =2 A
6+4
3.1 Superposition Theorem

Solution:
1. Consider the independent current source. The
voltage source is turned off.

2. Current through the 4Ω resistor due to the current

source,

6
i2 = (5) = 3 A
6+4

3. Apply superposition to find i in the circuit. Let i

= i1 + i2, Thus i = i1 + i2 = 3 + 2 = 5 A
3.1 Superposition Theorem

Example 2:
Apply superposition to find v in the circuit.
3.1 Superposition Theorem

Solution:
1. Consider the independent voltage source. The current
source is turned off.

2. Current through the 4Ω resistor due to the voltage

source,
8
12i1 − 6 = 0
+
i1 = 0.5 A 6V +
- 4 v1
-

The voltage across the 4Ω resistor,

v1 = i1(4Ω) = 2 V
 3.1 Superposition Theorem

Solution:
1. Consider the independent current source. The voltage
source is turned off.
2. Current through the 4Ω resistor due to the current
source,
8
i2 = (3) = 2 A
8+4

3. The voltage across the 4Ω resistor,

v1 = i1(4 Ω) = 8 V

Apply superposition to find v in the circuit.

let v = v1 + v2 = 2 + 8 = 10 V
3.1 Superposition Theorem

Example 3: Find vx

Solution:
let ix = i1 + i2, where i1 and i2 are due to the 10V
and 2A sources respectively.
 3.1 Superposition Theorem

Solution(continue.):
To obtain i1, consider the circuit
below.
2

i 1 5i1
1
+ vx -
10V +
-
4 +
-

-10 + 10i1 + 7i1 = 0, therefore i1 = (10/17) A

3.1 Superposition Theorem

Solution(continue…):
For i2, consider the circuit below.

i2 1 io 10i2 2
+-
+ vx -
2A 4

-2 + 10i2 + 7io = 0, and i2 + 2 = io.

-2 + 10i2 +7i2 + 14 = 0,
i2 = (-12/17) A
∴ vx = ixR = (i1 + i2)(1) = -2/17 = -117.6 mV
3.1 Superposition Theorem

Example 4: Use superposition to obtain vx

Solution:
Let vx = vx1 + vx2 + vx3, where vx1, vx2, and vx3 are
due to the 90 V, 6 A, and 40 V sources.
3.1 Superposition Theorem

Solution(continue…):
For vx1, consider the circuit below.

20 // 30 = 12 ohms,
60 // 30 = 20 ohms
By using current divider rule,
i1 = [20/(22 + 20)]3 = 60/42 A,
vx1= 10i1 = 600/42 = 14.286 V
 3.1 Superposition Theorem
Solution(continue…):
For vx2, consider the circuit below.

i2 = [12/(12 + 10 + 20)] 6
= 72/42,
vx2 = I R = (-i2)(R) = -10i2
= -17.143 V
3.1 Superposition Theorem

Solution(continue…):
For vx3, consider the circuit below.

i3 = [12/(12 + 30)]2 = 24/42,

vx3 = I R = (-i3)(R) = -10i3 = -5.714

∴ vx = 14.286 - 17.143 - 5.714 = -8.571V

*challenge: use nodal analysis
3.1 Superposition Theorem

Example 5: Use superposition to obtain vx

Solution:
Let vx = v1 + v2, where v1 and v2 are due to the 4 A and 6 A
sources respectively.
• To find v1:

(v/8) – 4 + [(v1 – (–4ix))/2] = 0

(0.125 + 0.5)v1 = 4 – 2ix
v1 = 6.4 – 3.2ix
• But, ix = (v1 – (–4ix))/2
ix = –0.5v1.
• Thus, v1 = 6.4 + 3.2(0.5v1)
v1 = –6.4/0.6 = –10.667 V
• To find v2: ix v2
+
2 6A 8 v2

4ix
(v2/8) – 6 + (v2 – (–4ix))/2 = 0
v2 + 3.2ix = 9.6
• But ix = –0.5v2. Therefore,
v2 + 3.2(–0.5v2) = 9.6
v2 = –16

• Hence, vx = –10.667 – 16 = –26.67V.

3.2 Thevenin's & Norton's Theorem

• In practice, a particular element in a circuit is a

variable (usually called load), while the other elements
are fixed. Each time the variable element is changed,
the entire circuit has to be analyzed all over again.

• Thevenin’s theorem and Norton’s theorem provide a

technique to replace the fixed part of the circuit with a
simple equivalent circuit as follow:
3.2 Thevenin's Theorem

• Thevenin’s theorem – simplifying a linear two- terminal

circuit to an equivalent circuit consisting of voltage
source VTh in series with a resistor RTh.
-VTh : open-circuit voltage across the terminal
-RTh : equivalent resistance at the terminal when
independent sources are turned off.
 3.2 Thevenin's Theorem

Thevenin’s theorem – measure experimentally:

• Measure VTh
open-circuit
voltage across the
terminal

• Measure RTh
equivalent
resistance when
all independent
sources are
turned off.
3.2 Thevenin's Theorem

Steps to apply Thevenin’s Theorem :

1. Replace the portion of network with a simple
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit – result in a two
terminals network.
2. Calculate the Thevenin’s voltage – find the open-
circuit voltage across the two terminals.
3. Determine RTh.
4. Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit & attach back
the variable element.
3.2 Thevenin's Theorem

Determine RTh:
Case 1: When network has only independent source
• set all independent sources to zero (Short-circuit
voltage sources or open-circuit current sources)
Case 2: When network has dependant sources
• set all independent sources to zero
• apply a v0 across terminal a-b to get i0 or apply a i0
through terminal a-b to get v0, RTh = v0/i0

2
3.2 Thevenin's Theorem

Example 5: Find the Thevenin's equivalent at

terminals a - b of the circuit
 3.2 Thevenin's Theorem

Solution:
To find VTh, consider the circuit below.

At node 1,
[(v1 - 40)/10] + 3 + [(v1 - v2)/20] + [(v1-0)/40] = 0
40 = 7v1 - 2v2 (1)
At node 2,
3 + (v1- v2)/20 = 0
v1 = v2 - 60 (2)
V1 V2
Solving (1) and (2),
v1 = 32 V, v2 = 92 V
VTh= v2 = 92 V
3.2 Thevenin's Theorem

Alternative: mesh analysis

Mesh 1: - 40 + 50i1 = 0, i1=0.8 A
Mesh 2: i2 = 3 A

Thus, VTh = 40 - 10(0.8) + 20(3) = 92 V

or VTh = 0 + 40(0.8) + 20(3) = 92 V

i2

il
3.2 Thevenin's Theorem

Solution(continue…):
To find RTh, consider the circuit below.
10Ω 20Ω
RTh = 20 + (10 // 40)
= 28 ohms
Rth
40Ω

28Ω

92 V

9
2
3.2 Thevenin's Theorem

Example 6: Obtain the Thevenin's equivalent circuits at the

terminals a-b for the circuit
 3.2 Thevenin's Theorem

Solution: To get VTh, consider the circuit

below.

At node 1: (v1-50)/3 + (v1-0)/6 + (v1 - v2)/2 = 0,

=> 100 = 6v1 - 3v2 (1)
At node 2: (v2-v1)/2 - 0.5 vx + (v2-0)/10, and vx = v1,
=> v1 = 0.6v2 (2)
From (1) and (2), v2= vTh= 166.67 V
 3.2 Thevenin's Theorem

Solution(continue…): To find RTh, short-circuit the 50 V

source and insert a 1 V source at a - b, as shown.

At node A,
[(1 - vx)/2] - 0.5vx + [(1- 0)/10)] - i = 0, => i + vx = 0.6 (3)

At node B,
[(vx - 0)/3] + [(vx - 0)/6] + [(vx - 1)/2] = 0, => vx = 0.5 (4)
From (3) and (4), i = 0.1 and RTh= V/ I = 1/ 0.1 =10 ohms
3.2 Thevenin's Theorem

Example 7: Obtain the Thevenin's equivalent circuits at the

terminals a-b for the circuit shown.
 3.2 Thevenin's Theorem

Solution: Apply mesh analysis to Loop 1.

–2vx + 2(i1 - i2) = 0

vx = i1 – i2
But, -4i2 = vx = i1 - i2,
hence i1 = -3i2

Apply KVL to loops 2 and 3

4i2 + 2(i2 - i1) + 6(i2 - i3) = 0
6(i3 - i2)+ 2i3 + 1 = 0

Solving the 3 equations above gives

i3 = (-1/6) A = - io
Hence RTh = 1 V/io = 6 Ω
 3.2 Thevenin's Theorem

Solution(continue…): To find VTh, apply mesh analysis to

the circuit shown.

i1 = 5
-2vx + 2(i3 - i2) = 0 vx = i3 - i2
4(i2 - i1) + 2(i2 - i3) + 6i2 = 0 12i2 - 4i1 - 2i3 = 0
Note vx = 4(i1 - i2). Solving these equations give i2 = 10/3.
Hence, VTh = voc = 6i2 = 20 V.
3.3 Norton's Theorem

• Norton’s theorem - simplifying a linear two-terminal

circuit to an equivalent circuit consisting of current
source IN in parallel with a resistor RN.
- IN : short-circuit current through the terminal.
- RN : equivalent resistance at the terminal when
independent sources are turned off.
3.3 Norton Theorem

Steps to apply Norton’s Theorem :

1. Replace the portion of network with a simple Norton’s
equivalent circuit – result in a two terminals network.
2. Calculate the Norton’s current – find the short-circuit
current through the two terminals.

3. Determine RN. Thevenin’s and Norton’s resistance are

equal. V
RN = RTh IN = isc = Th
RTh
Draw the Norton’s equivalent circuit & attach back the
variable element.
 3.3 Norton Theorem

Example 8: Find the Norton's equivalent circuit

RN = 5 І І (8+4+8)
i1 2
i2 = 4Ω

3
Mesh 1: i1 = 2 A
Mesh 2: 20i2 - 4i1 - 12 = 0 *Alternative: determine IN from VTh/R,
iN = i2 = 1 A use mesh analysis or source
conversion to solve for VTh
 3.3 Norton Theorem
Example 9: Find the Norton's equivalent circuit

V1 V2
1

Dependant sources, set an initial vo=1V

V3 V4 at terminal a-b.(V1=0V; V2=1V)
2 Node 1: ix = 0
Node 2: [(1 - 0) / 5] - 2ix – i0 = 0
� i0 = 0.2 A
Thus, RN = vo / io = 1 I 0.2 = 50Ω
(V3=10 V; V4=0 V)
Node 3: ix = [(10-0) / 4] = 2.5 A 7A= = 50 Ω
Node 4: IN + [(0-10) / 5] - 2ix = 0
∴ IN = 7 A
Thevenin-Norton Transformation

• VTh, IN and RTh or RN are related.

• To determine Thevenin’s or Norton’s equivalent circuit,
-open-circuit voltage voc across terminal a & b (see Thevenin)
-short-circuit current isc at terminal a & b (see Norton)
-equivalent resistance Req across terminal a & b when all
independent sources are turned off.
vTh = voc voc
RTh = = RN
iN = isc i sc

Source conversion
3.2 Thevenin's Theorem

Example 10: Find the Thevenin and Norton equivalent

at terminals a-b for the circuit shown.
 3.2 Thevenin's Theorem

Solution: Since VTh = Vab = Vx, apply KCL to node a.

50 −VTh VTh + 2V
= Th
12 60

VTh = 250 = 1.8941 V

126

To find RTh consider the circuit below. KCL at node a.

Vx Vx
1 = 2Vx+ +
60 12
60
1A V = = 0.4762
x 126
Vx
RTh = = 0.4762 Ω
I
 3.2 Thevenin's Theorem

Solution (cont.):
0.4762
a

1.8941V + Req = RTh = RN = 0.4762 Ω

-
b V
IN = Th = 1.8941 = 4.167 A
RTh 0.4762
a

4.167 A 0.4762

b
3.4 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

• In many practical situations, a circuit is designed to

achieve maximum power transfer to a load.
• Thevenin’s equivalent is useful to find this
maximum power transfer.

IL

VTh 2
PL = IL2 RL =( ) RL
RTh + RL
VTh 2
When RL= RTh , PL (max) =
4RTh
 3.4 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Prove:
2
 VTh 
Th  Th L   RL 
2  2

PL    L
R  V R  R
 RTh  RL 

dPL
 VTh2  RTh  RL  1  RL  2  RTh  RL  
2 3

dRL  
  RTh  RL  2 RL  
=V 2

  RTh  RL 
Th 3

At Maximum Power:
dPL
  0,  RL  RTh
dRL

VTh2
 PL  max  
4 RTh
3.4 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Summary:
VTh2
•When RL=RTh, PL  max  
4 RTh
2
 VTh 
•When RL≠RTh, PL    RL
  RTh  RL  
The dc operating efficiency is the ratio of power P
delivers to load (PL) by source (PS)
PL I L2 RL RL
%   2 
PS I L RT RT
RL
= 100%
RTh  RL
 %  50%
3.4 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Example 11:
(a)Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer.
(b)Find the maximum power.

Solution:(Thevenin’s equivalent
circuit)
(a) RTh = 2 + 3 + (6 I I 12)
= 9Ω
RL = RTh = 9Ω
3.4 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Solution(continue…): Apply KVL around the outer loop:

Mesh analysis − 12 + 6i1 + 3i2 + 2(0) + VTh = 0
VTh= 22 V
Mesh 1 : − 12 + 18i1 − 12i2=0
Mesh 2 : i2 = −2 Thus maximum power is:
∴i1 = −0.667 A V2
∴P
max = Th = 13.44 W
4RL
 3.4 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

V1 V2

Alternative: Nodal analysis

node1 :  V1  12  V1  0  V1  V2  0  7V  4V  24
1 2
6 12 3
V1  V2 V2  VTh
node 2 :  2    2V1  5V2  3VTh  12
3 2
V2  VTh
node 3 :   0  VTh  V2
2

V1  16V,VTh  V2  22V VTh2

 Pmax   13.44W
4 RL