Principles of Teaching

Lecture Reviewer: Dr. Perlita M. Vivero

 Learning Outcome:
Employ teaching methods,
learning activities, instructional
materials and technology, and
classroom management
techniques appropriate in
teaching
 Classroom Management

It is a wide variety of skills and

techniques that teachers use to
keep students organized,
orderly, focused, attentive, on-
task, and academically
productive during a class.
 With-it-ness
in Classroom Management
Are you with it?
With-it-ness is a term created by
Jacob S. Kounin to describe the
teacher's awareness of what is going
on in all parts of the classroom at all
times. We commonly refer to this as
"having eyes in the back of the head."
 With-it-ness
in Classroom Management

To be effective, the students must perceive

that the teacher really knows what is going
on in the gymnasium. If students are off-
task and fooling around, the teacher needs
to send a clear message that
communicates to the students that the
teacher sees that they are not working and
they need to get started.
Are You With It?
With-it-ness can be improved with practice, such
as learning how to effectively use systematic
techniques to scan the class. Keeping your "back
to the wall" as you move throughout the class
helps you see the broader picture and be more
aware of what is going on.

Timing is another aspect of with-it-ness. Teachers

should intervene early and quickly in dealing with
misbehavior. Failure to do so allows the
misbehavior to spread.
The RIPPLE EFFECT
Do you know what ripple effect is?

Ripple Effect occurs when the teacher corrects a

misbehavior in one student, and this positively
influences the behavior of other nearby students.
The ripple effect is influenced by the clarity and
firmness of the correction. The effect is greater
when the teacher clearly names the unacceptable
behavior and gives the reasons for the desist.
Firmness, that is, conveying an "I mean it" attitude,
enhances the ripple effect.
Do you know how to nip it in the bud?

To nip something in the bud is to literally remove a

bud from a plant to prevent flower and fruit from
forming. Idiomatically, it means to stop something
at an early stage. If a bad habit begins to develop,
“nip it in the bud’ so that it does not become
ingrained.

Implication: Issues are easier to sort out the earlier

they are addressed.
Question:

If the teacher knows how to nip it in the

bud, what is his/her classroom
management approach? (Answer in
one word.)

Answer: Proactive (It focuses on eliminating

problems before they have a chance to happen;
reactive approach often means reacting to the
past rather than anticipating the future.
Question:

What adage/saying (with 6 words) is

exactly similar in thought to nipping
something in the bud?

Answer: A stitch in time saves nine.

 Teaching Approaches and
Methods
• Approach is a set of assumptions that
define beliefs and theories about the
process of learning
• Examples: traditional/teacher-centered;
student-centered; inquiry-based;
collaborative learning
 Teaching Approaches and
Methods
• Method is an overall plan for systematic
presentation of a lesson based upon a
selected approach (Brown, 1994 in Corpuz,
2014).
• Examples: Direct Instruction, Differentiated
Learning, Game-based Learning,
Demonstration, Lecture, Buzz Session,
Numbered Heads Together
• Thematic instruction is the organization of
a curriculum around macro themes. It
integrates basic disciplines like reading,
math, and science with the exploration of a
broad subject, such as communities, rain
forests, river basin, use of energy, etc.
• Problem-based learning is a student-
centered pedagogy in which students learn
about a subject through the experience of
solving an open-ended problem found in
trigger material.
• Direct instruction is the explicit teaching of
a skill-set using lectures or demonstration
of the material to students. It uses
straightforward, explicit teaching
techniques to teach a specific skill with the
teacher presenting the information.
• Demonstration method is the process of
teaching how to make or do something in a
step-by-step process. Direct instruction
and demonstration method can be
intertwined.
• Lecture method is effective when the
teacher has the information or materials
which students do not have. It is teacher-
controlled and information-centered in
which the teacher serves as the sole-
resource in the classroom instruction.
• Project method or Project-based learning is
focused on a production model. The
driving force is the end product, but the key
to success is the skills acquired during the
process of producing the output.
On Time Management
 An effective classroom manager must be prepared with
materials and know how to transition students from one
activity to another without wasting time.

 The number one thing we could do to increase our

students' academic performance is to increase the time
spent on learning.

 Time is chipped away by taking attendance,

announcements, summons to the office, restroom
breaks, pep rally schedules, class meetings, special
presentations, awards ceremonies, celebrations, and a
myriad of other things.
ON LESSON PLANNING

Answer: To give the learners a

sense of continuity or wholeness (as
explained by the Gestalt Continuity Law –
the brain experiences visual lines of
elements that are grouped together with a
tendency to perceive a line continuing its
established direction)
ON ESTABLISHING ROUTINE
 Establishing an effective plan for classroom management
through routine has to begin at the start of school, but it
doesn’t end there.

 Throughout the year, we have to be consistent and

persistent in developing relationships of trust, following
and teaching the best learning theories, honoring student
time, being responsive to student behaviors and needs in
our lesson plans, and holding true to high and rigorous
standards of learning behavior.

 We also need to be flexible and adjust to tangles that can

derail even the best management plans.
ON ESTABLISHING ROUTINE

A classroom routine is simply a well-

rehearsed response to a teacher's directive.

 The alternative is usually noise, milling

around, and time wasting on the part of
students, as well as nagging on the part of
the teacher.

A classroom routine is, therefore, one of a

teacher's primary labor-saving devices.
ON ESTABLISHING ROUTINE
"Routines are the backbone of daily classroom
life. They facilitate teaching and learning.

 Routines don’t just make your life easier, they

save valuable classroom time. And what’s most
important, efficient routines make it easier for
students to learn and achieve more.“ (Learning to
Teach by Linda Shalaway)

When routines and procedures are carefully

taught, modeled, and established in the
classroom, children know what’s expected of
them and how to do certain things on their own.
BOOSTING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT
Try posing a broad question to groups of
three or four students, such as: “What
would happen if a butterfly’s habitat was
suffering a severe drought during the pupa
stage?” or “What if Tupac had lived?”

Let the groups discuss and present their

justifications to the class. The realization
students need to come to: Conjecture is a
legitimate starting point for learning.
BOOSTING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT

Pause after asking a question—and again after

getting an answer: Rushing through questions
and answers doesn’t help most students. We all
process information differently, and taking an
answer from the first student whose hand shoots
up means others may abandon the question
before they’ve truly processed it.

Pause with purpose after every question, and

again after every answer. That second pause
helps other students reconsider the question and
reflect on the first answer.
BOOSTING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT

Remember, too, that choral responses aren’t just

for younger students: When everyone repeats and
responds at the same time, the risk that
they’re not actively involved in the content is
reduced.

While we’d all like to see education become as

individualized as possible, there’s something
affirming about being part of the group every now
and then, even for older students.
ON LESSON PLANNING
 Channeling student behaviors, interests,
and attention into productive learning
paths requires intuitive lesson
planning. First, focus on how students will
be able to demonstrate that they
understand and have achieved the
learning objective (Grant Wiggins and
Jason McTighe, Understanding by
Design). Then build learning activities that
lead students to that point.
ON LESSON PLANNING
 According to Robert Marzano, an education
researcher, the focus of our lesson planning
efforts should be getting students to ask and
answer their own questions.
 Coming up with those types of questions on the
spur of the moment can be difficult, but with a
little advanced thought, you can incorporate
those types of questions into your lesson plans.
 Ultimately, the best discipline management plan
is a good lesson plan.
ON LESSON PLANNING

Note: The objectives/learning

outcomes must be presented at the
start of the lesson. The teacher
should make students own the
objectives as they journey through
achieving their goal of learning
ON LESSON PLANNING

Question: Why should teacher

Mary Kate do a review of previous
lesson in the conduct of his/her
class?
ON LESSON PLANNING

Answer: To give the learners a

sense of continuity or wholeness (as
explained by the Gestalt Continuity Law –
the brain experiences visual lines of
elements that are grouped together with a
tendency to perceive a line continuing its
established direction)
The Art of Questioning
 Craft fewer but deeper questions:
One or two thoughtfully phrased questions
can lead to a deep discussion.
 Try using questions that begin with “What
if” or “How might,” and aim for questions
that don’t have an undisputed yes or no
answer and that don’t rely on simple
recalling of facts.
 The goal should be to foster mature
thought and collaborative discussion.
The Art of Questioning
 Students need to be taught how to
be metacognitive, in other words,
how to “think about their thinking,” in
order to pose and answer questions
that will propel their learning
forward.
The Art of Questioning
 After posing questions to students, Wait
Time is critical, as it gives the teacher a chance
to measure the students’ understanding.

 If the teacher immediately responds, it may stop

any further questioning or reflection on the part
of the students.

 When listening to students’ responses, teachers

should remain open to the thinking that is being
conveyed, rather than focusing on hearing “the
right answer.”
The Art of Questioning
After posing a question, teachers need to
provide Wait Time for students to generate their
response.
By providing Wait Time, students are given the
opportunity to think aloud, use supportive
evidence, elaborate on their ideas, and/or ask
additional questions.
Wait Time also helps to prevent the teacher
from asking multiple questions in succession,
and encourages giving students the time to
ponder, hypothesize, and think deeply about
important ideas.
The Art of Questioning
If a student responds “I don’t know” to a
question, many reasons can be at the back of
his/her mind. Hence, the teacher must employ
the prompting technique which refers to the act
of persuading or encouraging the student to do
or say something.

Implication: The teacher must prod the learner

further rather than give up on his seeming
disinterest or insufficient understanding.
Rationale for Wait Time
• Students have more time to think.
• More students have time to prepare a
response.
• More students participate in
responding.
• Students can make greater sense of
their classmates’ responses.
Rationale for Wait Time
• Teachers are less tempted to answer
their own questions.
• Students give longer responses.
• Students spend more time pondering
the ideas presented.
• Teachers ask fewer questions, and
those they do ask are at a higher level.
Four Basic Types of Questions
1. Factual
These type of questions solicit reasonably
simple, straight forward answers based on
obvious facts or awareness. These are
usually at the lowest level of cognitive
(thinking) or affective (feeling) processes
and answers are frequently either right or
wrong.

Example: Name the Shakespeare play

about the Prince of Denmark?
2.Convergent Questions
• Answers to these types of questions are usually within a
very finite range of acceptable accuracy.

• These may be at several different levels of cognition —

comprehension, application, analysis, or ones where the
answerer makes inferences or conjectures based on
personal awareness, or on material read, presented or
known.
• While these types of questions are valuable in exercising
mid-level cognitive thinking skills, it is quite easy to expand
students’ cognitive processes even higher by adding
another layer to these questions whereby teachers ask
students to justify their answers in light of the evidence
offered or the inferences made.
Example of a Convergent Question:

On reflecting over the entirety of the play

Hamlet, what were the main reasons why
Ophelia went mad? (This is not specifically
stated in one direct statement in the text of
Hamlet. Here the reader must make simple
inferences as to why she committed suicide.)
3. Divergent Questions
• These questions allow students to explore different
avenues and create many different variations and
alternative answers or scenarios.

• Correctness may be based on logical projections, may

be contextual, or arrived at through basic knowledge,
conjecture, inference, projection, creation, intuition, or
imagination.

• These types of questions often require students to

analyze, evaluate, or synthesize a knowledge base and
then project or predict different outcomes. Answering
these types of questions may be aided by higher levels
of affective thinking as well — such as valuing,
organization, or characterization.
• The intent of divergent questions is to
stimulate imaginative, creative, or
inventive thought, or investigate “cause
and effect” relationships.

Example: In the love relationship of Hamlet

and Ophelia, what might have happened to
their relationship and their lives if Hamlet
had not been so obsessed with the revenge
of his father’s death?
4. Evaluative Questions
• These types of questions usually require
sophisticated levels of cognitive and/or
emotional (affective) judgment. In attempting to
answer these types of questions, students may
be combining multiple cognitive and/or affective
processes or levels, frequently in comparative
frameworks.
• Often an answer is analyzed at multiple levels
and from different perspectives before the
answerer arrives at newly synthesized
information or conclusions.
Examples of Evaluative Questions:

a. How are the deaths of Ophelia and Juliet the

same and yet different? (Compare and contrast.)
b. What are the similarities and differences
between Roman gladiatorial games and modern
football?
c. Why and how might the concept of Piagetian
schema be related to the concepts presented in
Jungian personality theory, and why might this be
important to consider in teaching and learning?
Group Strategies in Teaching
(Ornstein)
A symposium is generally defined as a meeting
organized so that experts in a given field can meet,
present papers, and discuss issues and trends or make
recommendations for a certain course of action.

A Symposium is a formal gathering in an academic

setting where participants are experts in their fields.
These experts present or deliver their opinions or
viewpoints on a chosen topic of discussion. It would be
correct to label a symposium as a small scale
conference as the number of delegates is smaller.
Group Strategies in Teaching
(Ornstein)
Role-play is a technique in teaching and learning that
allows students to explore realistic situations by
interacting with other people in a managed way in order to
develop experience and trial different strategies in a
supported environment.

Role play helps develop the cognitive, psychomotor, and

affective domains of learning. It enhances the learners’
interpersonal skills as it provides greater understanding of
the complexity of professional practice and enables
development of skills to engage in multi-stakeholder
negotiations within the controlled environment of the
classroom.
• Brainstorming is the process of generating creative ideas
and solutions through intensive and freewheeling group
discussion. Every participant is encouraged to think aloud
and suggest as many ideas as possible, no matter
seemingly how outlandish or bizarre. Analysis, discussion,
or criticism of the aired ideas is allowed only when the
brainstorming session is over.
• Simulation is the imitation of the operation of a real-world
process or system over time. The act of simulating
something requires that a model be developed; this model
represents the key characteristics or functions of the
selected physical or abstract system/process.
• Phillips 66 is a company that advocates Energy for
Education, a safety awareness program designed to
educate parents, students, and schools and engage them
in public safety programs.
Critical thinkers:
Find answers, share information, talk
to others, and seek out facts;
Take time for ideas, identify
possibilities, and are not content with
pat answers;
Base their judgments on evidence,
make an effort to be fair-minded, and
form opinions after studying facts and
evidence;
Critical thinkers:
Know that truth is often complex.
Look for connections between
subjects and realize that concepts
and strategies learned in one subject
often apply to other subjects.
Think for themselves, learn from
others’ experience, and make their
own judgments
How to Develop Critical Thinking Skills
• Avoid mindsets or value judgments – these are the
enemies of critical thinking. (Mindsets occur when
thinking becomes set in patterns that affect how we
respond to new ideas. Mindsets are barriers to learning
and serve only to suppress independence and creativity
in learning.)

• Be receptive. Let new information blend with your own

values.

• Weigh information that goes counter with what you

think or believe to be true and rationalize on the
prevalence of that current idea. Do not be closed-
minded.
What is Content-Based Instruction?

Content-based instruction (CBI) is a

significant approach in language education
(Brinton, Snow, & Wesche, 1989),
designed to provide second-language
learners instruction in content and
language (hence it is also called content-
based language teaching; CBLT).
What is Content-Based Instruction?
 The focus of a CBI lesson is on the topic or subject
matter. During the lesson, students are focused on
learning about something. This could be anything that
interests them from a serious science subject to their
favorite pop star or even a topical news story or film.

 They learn about this subject using the language they are
trying to learn, rather than their native language, as a tool
for developing knowledge and so they develop their
linguistic ability in the target language.

 This is thought to be a more natural way of developing

language ability and one that corresponds more to the
way we originally learn our first language.
Outcomes-Based Education (OBE) standards for Higher
Education Institutions (HEIs) is mandated by CMO 46, s.2012.
OBE is a student-centered approach in teaching, focused on the
intended learning outcomes resulting from instruction.

Deciding on
Identifying strategies and
desired methodologies to
outcomes achieve
outcomes

Determining
assessment measures
for the achievement of
outcomes
Meaning of Outcomes
Outcomes are the end targets of OBE:
1. clear learning results that leaners
demonstrate; what learners actually do
with what they have learned (Butler,
2004);
2. actions, products, performances that
reflect a learner’s competence in using
content, information, and tools
successfully (Geyser, 1999);
3. demonstration of learning, not learning
of curriculum content (Spady, 1994).
Four Principles of OBE:
1. Clarity of Focus
• Clarified with the learning outcomes, learners know
exactly what they are expected to demonstrate at the
end of the lesson.

• More than clarifying the intended learning outcomes

with the learners, teachers motivate every student to
make these learning outcomes his/her own and
becomes every learner’s personal learning targets.
2. Designing Down

• Once the learning outcomes are set, the

teacher considers in advance the assessment
evidence needed to validate the achievement of
the intended learning outcomes.
• Making clear how the intended learning
outcome will be assessed invariably sharpens
and focuses instruction.
• This stage of advancing the assessment task
can be called “backward design” as inspired
from the UbD or Understanding by Design
approach.
3. High Expectations
• High expectations lead to high
performance; Research says that learners’
level of performance is usually lower than
the level of aspiration, so if the standard is
set at 75, more or less, the students will
achieve 71, but if the standard is 95, the
learners will likely obtain 88.
• This OBE principle is alluded to the
Pygmalion effect or Rosenthal effect
phenomenon
4. Expanded Opportunities
• OBE is anchored on the premise that all
learners are teachable;
• All learners can learn and succeed, but not
all at the same time and in the same way;
• Some learners may need more time than
others;
• Hence, teachers must provide the learners
the necessary time and instruction
according to what they need and this is
expanded opportunities.