Digital and Non-Linear Control

Time Domain Analysis

 Introduction
• In time-domain analysis the response of a dynamic
system to an input is expressed as a function of
time.

• It is possible to compute the time response of a

system if the nature of input and the mathematical
model of the system are known.

• Usually, the input signals to control systems are

not known fully ahead of time.

• It is therefore difficult to express the actual input

signals mathematically by simple equations.
 Standard Test Signals
• The characteristics of actual input signals are a
sudden shock, a sudden change, a constant
velocity, and constant acceleration.

• The dynamic behavior of a system is therefore

judged and compared under application of
standard test signals – an impulse, a step, a
constant velocity, and constant acceleration.

• The other standard signal of great importance is a

sinusoidal signal.
 Standard Test Signals
• Impulse signal
– The impulse signal imitate the
sudden shock characteristic of
actual input signal. δ(t)

A
A t0
 (t )  
0 t0
0 t

– If A=1, the impulse signal is

called unit impulse signal.
 Standard Test Signals
• Step signal
– The step signal imitate
the sudden change u(t)

characteristic of actual
A
input signal.

A t0 t
u( t )   0
0 t0

– If A=1, the step signal is

called unit step signal
 Standard Test Signals
• Ramp signal r(t)

– The ramp signal imitate

the constant velocity
characteristic of actual
input signal.
0 t

 At t0
r(t )  
r(t)

0 t0
ramp signal with slope A

– If A=1, the ramp signal r(t)

is called unit ramp
signal unit ramp signal
 Standard Test Signals
p(t)
• Parabolic signal
– The parabolic signal
imitate the constant
acceleration characteristic
of actual input signal. 0 t

 At 2 p(t)

 t0
p(t )   2
0 t0
parabolic signal with slope A
 p(t)

– If A=1, the parabolic

signal is called unit
parabolic signal. Unit parabolic signal
 Relation between standard Test Signals
A t0
• Impulse  (t )  
0 t0
d
 dt
A t0
• Step u( t )  
0 t0 d
 dt
 At t0
• Ramp r(t )  
t0
0 d
dt
  At 2
 t0
• Parabolic p(t )   2
0 t0

 Laplace Transform of Test Signals

• Impulse
A t0
 (t )  
0 t0

L{ (t )}   ( s)  A

• Step
A t0
u( t )  
0 t0

A
L{u(t )}  U ( s ) 
S
 Laplace Transform of Test Signals

• Ramp  At t0
r(t )  
0 t0

A
L{ r(t )}  R( s ) 
s2
• Parabolic  At 2
 t0
p(t )   2
0 t0

A
L{ p (t )}  P( s )  3
S
 Time Response of Control Systems
• Time response of a dynamic system response to an input
expressed as a function of time.

System

• The time response of any system has two components

• Transient response
• Steady-state response.
 Time Response of Control Systems
• When the response of the system is changed from equilibrium it
takes some time to settle down.

• This is called transient response.

-3
x 10 Step Response
6

Step Input
5
• The response of the

Steady State Response

system after the transient 4
Response
Amplitude

response is called steady 3

state response. 2 Transient Response

1

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (sec)
 Time Response of Control Systems
• Transient response depend upon the system poles only and not
on the type of input.

• It is therefore sufficient to analyze the transient response using a

step input.

• The steady-state response depends on system dynamics and the

input quantity.

• It is then examined using different test signals by final value

theorem.
 Introduction
• The first order system has only one pole.
C( s ) K

R( s ) Ts  1
• Where K is the D.C gain and T is the time constant
of the system.

• Time constant is a measure of how quickly a 1st

order system responds to a unit step input.

• D.C Gain of the system is ratio between the input

signal and the steady state value of output.
 Introduction
• The first order system given below.
10
G( s ) 
3s  1
• D.C gain is 10 and time constant is 3 seconds.

• For the following system

3 3/ 5
G( s )  
s  5 1 / 5s  1

• D.C Gain of the system is 3/5 and time constant is 1/5

seconds.
 Impulse Response of 1st Order System
• Consider the following 1st order system
δ(t)

K
R(s ) C(s )
1

Ts  1
t
0

R( s )   ( s )  1

K
C( s ) 
Ts  1
 Impulse Response of 1st Order System
K
C( s ) 
Ts  1
• Re-arrange following equation as

K /T
C( s ) 
s  1/ T

• In order to compute the response of the system in time domain

we need to compute inverse Laplace transform of the above
equation.
1 
C  K t / T
L    Ce  at c(t )  e
sa T
 Impulse Response of 1st Order System
K t / T
• If K=3 and T=2s then c(t )  e
T
K/T*exp(-t/T)
1.5

1
c(t)

0.5

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time
 Step Response of 1st Order System
• Consider the following 1st order system
K
R(s ) C(s )
Ts  1

1
R( s )  U ( s ) 
s
K
C( s ) 
sTs  1
• In order to find out the inverse Laplace of the above equation, we
need to break it into partial fraction expansion (page 867 in the
Textbook) K KT
C( s )  
s Ts  1
 Step Response of 1st Order System
1 T 
C( s )  K   
 s Ts  1 
• Taking Inverse Laplace of above equation


c(t )  K u(t )  et / T 
c(t )  K 1  e 
• Where u(t)=1
t / T

• When t=T (time constant)

 
c(t )  K 1  e1  0.632K
 Step Response of 1st Order System
• If K=10 and T=1.5s then 
c(t )  K 1  e t / T 
K*(1-exp(-t/T))
11

10

9 Step Response

8
steady state output 10
7 D.C Gain  K  
63% Input 1
6
c(t)

2
Unit Step Input
1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time
 Step Response of 1st order System
• System takes five time constants to reach its
final value.
 Step Response of 1st Order System
• If K=10 and T=1, 3, 5, 7 
c(t )  K 1  e t / T 
K*(1-exp(-t/T))
11
10
T=1s
9

8 T=3s
7
T=5s
6
c(t)

5 T=7s

4
3
2
1
0
0 5 10 15
Time
 Step Response of 1st Order System
• If K=1, 3, 5, 10 and T=1 
c(t )  K 1  e t / T 
K*(1-exp(-t/T))
11
10
K=10
9

8
7
6
K=5
c(t)

5
4
K=3
3
2
K=1
1
0
0 5 10 15
Time
 Relation Between Step and impulse
response
• The step response of the first order system is

 
c(t )  K 1  e t / T  K  Ket / T

• Differentiating c(t) with respect to t yields

dc(t ) d
dt

dt

K  Ke t / T 
dc(t ) K t / T
 e
dt T
 Analysis of Simple RC Circuit i(t)
R
vT(t) ± C v(t)
R  i (t )  v(t )  vT (t )
d (Cv(t )) dv(t )
i (t )  C
dt dt
dv(t )
 RC  v(t )  vT (t )
dt
state
variable
Input
waveform
 Analysis of Simple RC Circuit
dv(t )
Step-input response: RC  v(t )  v0u (t )
dt
t
v(t )  Ke RC  v0u(t )
v0u(t) match initial state:
v0 v(0)  0  K  v0u (t )  0  K  v0  0
v0(1-e-t/RC)u(t) output response for step-input:
t
v(t )  v0 (1  e RC
)u(t )
 RC Circuit
• v(t) = v0(1 - e-t/RC) -- waveform
under step input v0u(t)

• v(t)=0.5v0  t = 0.69RC
– i.e., delay = 0.69RC (50% delay)
v(t)=0.1v0  t = 0.1RC
v(t)=0.9v0  t = 2.3RC
– i.e., rise time = 2.2RC (if defined as time from 10% to 90% of Vdd)
• For simplicity, industry uses
TD = RC (= Elmore delay)
Elmore Delay

1. 50%-50%
point delay
Delay 2. Delay=0.69
RC
 Example 1
• Impulse response of a 1st order system is given below.

c(t )  3e 0.5t

• Find out
– Time constant T
– D.C Gain K
– Transfer Function
– Step Response
 Example 1
• The Laplace Transform of Impulse response of a
system is actually the transfer function of the system.
• Therefore taking Laplace Transform of the impulse
response given by following equation.
c(t )  3e 0.5t
3 3
C( s )  1    (s)
S  0.5 S  0.5
C( s ) C( s ) 3
 
 ( s ) R( s ) S  0.5
C( s ) 6

R( s ) 2 S  1
 Example 1
• Impulse response of a 1st order system is given below.

c(t )  3e 0.5t

• Find out
– Time constant T=2
– D.C Gain K=6
– Transfer Function C ( s )  6
R( s ) 2 S  1
– Step Response
 Example 1
• For step response integrate impulse response

c(t )  3e 0.5t

0.5t
 c( t )dt  3 e dt

cs (t )  6e 0.5t  C

• We can find out C if initial condition is known e.g. cs(0)=0

0  6e 0.50  C
C6
cs (t )  6  6e 0.5t
 Example 1
• If initial conditions are not known then partial fraction
expansion is a better choice
C( s ) 6

R( s ) 2 S  1
1
since R( s ) is a step input , R( s ) 
s
6
C( s ) 
s2S  1
6 A B
 
s2S  1 s 2s  1

6 6 6
 
s2S  1 s s  0.5

c(t )  6  6e 0.5t
 Ramp Response of 1st Order System
• Consider the following 1st order system

K
R(s ) C(s )
Ts  1

1
R( s ) 
s2
K
C( s ) 
s 2 Ts  1
• The ramp response is given as


c(t )  K t  T  Tet / T 
 Parabolic Response of 1st Order System
• Consider the following 1st order system

K
R(s ) C(s )
Ts  1

1 K
R( s )  Therefore, C( s ) 
s 3
s 3 Ts  1
 Practical Determination of Transfer
Function of 1st Order Systems
• Often it is not possible or practical to obtain a system's
transfer function analytically.

• Perhaps the system is closed, and the component parts are

not easily identifiable.

• The system's step response can lead to a representation even

though the inner construction is not known.

• With a step input, we can measure the time constant and the
steady-state value, from which the transfer function can be
calculated.
 Practical Determination of Transfer
Function of 1st Order Systems
• If we can identify T and K empirically we can obtain the
transfer function of the system.

C( s ) K

R( s ) Ts  1
 Practical Determination of Transfer Function
of 1st Order Systems
• For example, assume the unit
step response given in figure. K=0.72
• From the response, we can
measure the time constant, that
is, the time for the amplitude to
reach 63% of its final value.
• Since the final value is about T=0.13s

0.72 the time constant is

evaluated where the curve
reaches 0.63 x 0.72 = 0.45, or • Thus transfer function is
about 0.13 second. obtained as:
• K is simply steady state value. C( s ) 0.72 5.5
 
R( s ) 0.13 s  1 s  7.7
 First Order System with a Zero
C ( s ) K (1  s )

R( s ) Ts  1
• Zero of the system lie at -1/α and pole at -1/T.

• Step response of the system would be:

K (1  s )
C( s ) 
sTs  1
K K (  T )
C( s )  
s Ts  1
K
c(t )  K  (  T )e t / T
T
 First Order System With Delays
• Following transfer function is the generic
representation of 1st order system with time
lag.
C( s ) K
 e  std
R( s ) Ts  1

• Where td is the delay time.

First Order System With Delays
C( s ) K  std
 e
R( s ) Ts  1

Unit Step
Step Response

t
td
 First Order System With Delays
Step Response
C (s) 10  2 s
 e
R( s ) 3s  1 10

C (s) 
10
e 2 s K  10
s (3s  1)
8
L1[e s F ( s )]  f (t   )u (t   )
10  10  2 s
L1[(  )e ] 
s s 1/ 3 6
Amplitude

[10(t  2)  10e 1/ 3(t  2 ) ]u (t  2)

t d  2s
T  3s
0

0 5 10 15
Time (sec)
 Second Order System
• We have already discussed the affect of location of poles and zeros on
the transient response of 1st order systems.

• Compared to the simplicity of a first-order system, a second-order system

exhibits a wide range of responses that must be analyzed and described.

• Varying a first-order system's parameter (T, K) simply changes the speed

and offset of the response

• Whereas, changes in the parameters of a second-order system can

change the form of the response.

• A second-order system can display characteristics much like a first-order

system or, depending on component values, display damped or pure
oscillations for its transient response. 44
 Introduction
• A general second-order system is characterized by the
following transfer function.

C( s ) n2
 2
R( s ) s  2 n s  n2

n un-damped natural frequency of the second order system,

which is the frequency of oscillation of the system without
damping.

 damping ratio of the second order system, which is a measure

of the degree of resistance to change in the system output. 45
 Example 2
• Determine the un-damped natural frequency and damping ratio
of the following second order system.

C( s ) 4
 2
R( s ) s  2s  4

• Compare the numerator and denominator of the given transfer

function with the general 2nd order transfer function.

C( s ) n2
 2
R( s ) s  2 n s  n2

n2  4  n  2  2 n s  2s
  n  1
s 2  2 n s  n2  s 2  2s  4
   0.5 46
 Introduction

C( s ) n2
 2
R( s ) s  2 n s  n2

• Two poles of the system are

  n   n  2  1

  n   n  2  1

47
 Introduction
  n   n  2  1

  n   n  2  1
• According the value of  , a second-order system can be set into
one of the four categories (page 169 in the textbook):
1. Overdamped - when the system has two real distinct poles (  >1).

jω

δ
-c -b -a

48
 Introduction
  n   n  2  1

  n   n  2  1
• According the value of  , a second-order system can be set into
one of the four categories (page 169 in the textbook):

2. Underdamped - when the system has two complex conjugate poles (0 < <1)

jω

δ
-c -b -a

49
 Introduction
  n   n  2  1

  n   n  2  1
• According the value of  , a second-order system can be set into
one of the four categories (page 169 in the textbook):

3. Undamped - when the system has two imaginary poles (  = 0).

jω

δ
-c -b -a

50
 Introduction
  n   n  2  1

  n   n  2  1
• According the value of  , a second-order system can be set into
one of the four categories (page 169 in the textbook):

4. Critically damped - when the system has two real but equal poles ( = 1).
jω

δ
-c -b -a

51
 Underdamped System
For 0<  <1 and ωn > 0, the 2nd order system’s response due to a
unit step input is as follows.
Important timing characteristics: delay time, rise time, peak
time, maximum overshoot, and settling time.

52
 Delay Time
• The delay (td) time is the time required for the response to
reach half the final value the very first time.

53
 Rise Time
• The rise time is the time required for the response to rise from 10%
to 90%, 5% to 95%, or 0% to 100% of its final value.
• For underdamped second order systems, the 0% to 100% rise time is
normally used. For overdamped systems, the 10% to 90% rise time is
commonly used.
 Peak Time
• The peak time is the time required for the response to reach
the first peak of the overshoot.

55
55
 Maximum Overshoot
The maximum overshoot is the maximum peak value of the
response curve measured from unity. If the final steady-state
value of the response differs from unity, then it is common to
use the maximum percent overshoot. It is defined by

The amount of the maximum (percent) overshoot directly

indicates the relative stability of the system.

56
 Settling Time
• The settling time is the time required for the response curve
to reach and stay within a range about the final value of size
specified by absolute percentage of the final value (usually 2%
or 5%).

57
 Step Response of underdamped System
C( s ) n2 Step Response n2
 2 C( s ) 
R( s ) s  2 n s  n2 
s s 2  2 n s  n2 
• The partial fraction expansion of above equation is given as

1 s  2 n
C( s )   2
s s  2 n s   n2

n2 1   2 
1 s  2 n
C( s )   2
s  2 n 2 s s  2 n s   2 n2   n2   2 n2

1 s  2 n
C( s )  

s s   n 2  n2 1   2  58
 Step Response of underdamped System
1 s  2 n
C( s )  

s s   n 2  n2 1   2 
• Above equation can be written as
1 s  2 n
C( s )  
s s   n 2  d2
• Where d  n 1   2 , is the frequency of transient oscillations
and is called damped natural frequency.

• The inverse Laplace transform of above equation can be obtained

easily if C(s) is written in the following form:
1 s   n  n
C( s )   
s s   n   d s   n 2  d2
2 2
59
Step Response of underdamped System
1 s   n  n
C( s )   
s s   n   d s   n 2  d2
2 2


n 1   2
1 s   n 1 2
C( s )   
s s   n   d
2 2
s   n 2  d2
1 s   n  d
C( s )   
s s   n    d
2 2
1 2 s   2   2
n d

 n t 
c(t )  1  e cos  d t  e  nt sin  d t
1 2
60
 Step Response of underdamped System
 n t 
c(t )  1  e cos  d t  e  nt sin  d t
1 2

  
c(t )  1  e  nt cos d t  sin d t 
 1   2 
 

• When   0
d  n 1   2
 n

c(t )  1  cos  n t
61
Step Response of underdamped System
  
c(t )  1  e  nt cos d t  sin d t 
 1   2 
 
if   0.1 and n  3
1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

62
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Step Response of underdamped System
  
c(t )  1  e  nt cos d t  sin d t 
 1   2 
 
if   0.5 and n  3
1.4

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

63
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Step Response of underdamped System
  
c(t )  1  e  nt cos d t  sin d t 
 1   2 
 
if   0.9 and n  3
1.4

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 64
0 2 4 6 8 10
Step Response of underdamped System
  
c(t )  1  e  nt cos d t  sin d t 
 1   2 
 

65
 S-Plane (Underdamped System)
Since 𝜔2 𝜁 2 − 𝜔2 𝜁 2 − 1 = 𝜔2 , the distance
  n   n  2  1 from the pole to the origin is 𝜔 and 𝜁 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽

  n   n  2  1

66
 Analytical Solution
  
• Page 171 in the textbook c(t )  1  e  nt 

cos d t 
1 2
sin d t 

 
𝜋−𝛽
• Rise time: set c(t)=1, we have 𝑡𝑟 = d  n 1   2
𝜔𝑑
𝑑𝑐(𝑡) 𝜋
• Peak time: set = 0, we have 𝑡𝑝 =
𝑑𝑡 𝜔𝑑
• Maximum overshoot: M𝑝 = 𝑐 𝑡𝑝 − 1 =
𝑒 −(𝜁𝜔/𝜔𝑑 )𝜋 (for unity output)
• Settling time: the time for the outputs always
4
within 2% of the final value is approximately
𝜁𝜔
 Empirical Solution Using MATLAB
• Page 242 in the textbook
 Steady State Error
• If the output of a control system at steady state does not
exactly match with the input, the system is said to have
steady state error

• Any physical control system inherently suffers steady-state

error in response to certain types of inputs.

• Page 219 in the textbook

• A system may have no steady-state error to a step input, but

the same system may exhibit nonzero steady-state error to a
ramp input.
 Classification of Control Systems
• Control systems may be classified according to
their ability to follow step inputs, ramp inputs,
parabolic inputs, and so on.

• The magnitudes of the steady-state errors due

to these individual inputs are indicative of the
goodness of the system.
 Classification of Control Systems
• Consider the unity-feedback control system
with the following open-loop transfer function

• It involves the term sN in the denominator,

representing N poles at the origin.

• A system is called type 0, type 1, type 2, ... , if

N=0, N=1, N=2, ... , respectively.
 Classification of Control Systems
• As the type number is increased, accuracy is
improved.

• However, increasing the type number

aggravates the stability problem.

• A compromise between steady-state accuracy

and relative stability is always necessary.
Steady State Error of Unity Feedback Systems

• Consider the system shown in following figure.

• The closed-loop transfer function is

 Steady State Error of Unity Feedback Systems
• Steady state error is defined as the error between the
input signal and the output signal when 𝑡 → ∞.

• The transfer function between the error signal E(s) and the
input signal R(s) is E ( s ) 1

R( s ) 1  G( s )
• The final-value theorem provides a convenient way to find
the steady-state performance of a stable system.
• Since E(s) is
• The steady state error is
 Static Error Constants
• The static error constants are figures of merit of
control systems. The higher the constants, the
smaller the steady-state error.
• In a given system, the output may be the position,
velocity, pressure, temperature, or the like.
• Therefore, in what follows, we shall call the output
“position,” the rate of change of the output
“velocity,” and so on.
• This means that in a temperature control system
“position” represents the output temperature,
“velocity” represents the rate of change of the
output temperature, and so on.
 Static Position Error Constant (Kp)
• The steady-state error of the system for a unit-step input is

• The static position error constant Kp is defined by

• Thus, the steady-state error in terms of the static position

error constant Kp is given by
 Static Position Error Constant (Kp)
• For a Type 0 system

• For Type 1 or higher order systems

• For a unit step input the steady state error ess is

 Static Velocity Error Constant (Kv)
• The steady-state error of the system for a unit-ramp input is

• The static velocity error constant Kv is defined by

• Thus, the steady-state error in terms of the static velocity

error constant Kv is given by
 Static Velocity Error Constant (Kv)
• For a Type 0 system

• For Type 1 systems

• For type 2 or higher order systems

 Static Velocity Error Constant (Kv)
• For a ramp input the steady state error ess is
 Static Acceleration Error Constant (Ka)
• The steady-state error of the system for parabolic input is

• The static acceleration error constant Ka is defined by

• Thus, the steady-state error in terms of the static acceleration

error constant Ka is given by
 Static Acceleration Error Constant (Ka)
• For a Type 0 system

• For Type 1 systems

• For type 2 systems

• For type 3 or higher order systems

 Static Acceleration Error Constant (Ka)
• For a parabolic input the steady state error ess is
Summary
 Example 2
• For the system shown in figure below evaluate the static
error constants and find the expected steady state errors
for the standard step, ramp and parabolic inputs.

100 ( s  2)( s  5)
R(S) C(S)
2
s ( s  8)( s  12 )
-
 Example 2
100 ( s  2)( s  5)
G( s ) 
s 2 ( s  8)( s  12 )
K p  lim G( s )
s 0 K v  lim sG( s )
s 0
 100 ( s  2 )( s  5) 
K p  lim  2   100 s( s  2 )( s  5) 
s 0  s ( s  8)( s  12 )  K v  lim  2 
s 0  s ( s  8)( s  12 ) 
Kp  
Kv  

K a  lim s 2G( s )  100 s 2 ( s  2)( s  5) 

K a  lim  2 
s 0  
s 0
 s ( s  8 )( s  12 ) 
 100 ( 0  2)( 0  5) 
K a     10 .4
 ( 0  8)( 0  12 ) 
 Example 2
Kp   Kv   K a  10.4

0

0

 0.09