SEISMIC DATA

PROCESSING
(PART III)
MIGRATION
Definition of Migration

Migration is the process of reconstructing a seismic

section so that reflection events are repositioned under
their correct surface location and at a corrected vertical
reflection time. (Kearey and Brooks, 1991)
Objectives of Migration

• Collapse of diffractions.

• Correct for dip and position of dipping layers.

• Improve resolution (focusing of energy).

• Realistic picture of the subsurface.

Limitations of Migration

• Insufficient spatial resolution will result in aliasing.

• 2-D slice of 3-D wavefield (need 3-D migration!).

• Edge effects.

• Coherent noise.

• Requires knowledge of velocity structure.

• Time migration methods assume lateral velocity varies

(otherwise need depth migration).
Geometrical Distortion

• Point diffractor:

Note that using the Huygens principle all finite objects

can be considered as a summation of point scatterers.

• Dipping layer.

• Valley.
Point Scatterer
Migration/Imaging Algorithm
Wavefront Charting
Migration of Individual Reflections Back to
Position of Point Scatterer
Wavefront Charting

Use of wavefront chart and curve of maximum convexity to

migrate a specific reflection event: the event is tangential to the
appropriate curve of maximum convexity, and the migrated
position of the event is at the intersection of the wavefront with
the apex of the curve.
Dipping Layer
Dipping Layer
Synclines
Structural Model of The Subsurface
Stacked Section without Migration
Anticline and Syncline
Migration unties the bowties and turns them into synclines below A and B.
The deeper data, which are probably multiples, out-of-
plane diffractions and other type of noise are smeared out
because they are migrated as if they were primary
reflections.
Migration Velocities

Horizontal displacement during migration is proportional to

migration velocity squared. Since velocities generally
increase with depth, errors in migration are usually larger
for deep events than shallow events. Also, the steeper the
dip, the more accurate the migration velocities need to be,
since displacement is proportional to dip.
Migration Velocities

Accuracy in event positioning after migration actually

depends on the combined effects of the performance of
the migration algorithm and the velocity errors. For
example, the inherently undermigrating character of a
45-degree finite-difference algorithm can be coincidentally
counterbalanced by the overmigration effect of
erroneously too high velocities. In the presence of large
vertical velocity gradients, a two-pass 3-D migration can
also cause overmigration of steep dips (in the form of
lateral translation) even with the correct migration
velocities.
Over and Undermigration

• When the velocity is lower than the actual velocity

the data is undermigrated.

• When the velocity is higher than the actual velocity,

the data is overmigrated.
Undermigrated Data
Overmigrated Data
Undermigrated Data
Overmigrated Data
Methods for (Post-Stack) Migration

1. Time Migration (No Lateral Velocity Changes)

• Wavefront-charting
• Diffraction-migration (Kirchhoff-Migration).
• Wave equation finite difference (FD-Migration).
• Downwards continuation.
• FK-Migration.
• Phase-shift (Gazdag).
• Stolt-Migration.

2. Depth Migration (Lateral Velocity Changes)

Diffraction Migration Using Huygen’s
Secondary Sources

Superposition of the zero-offset responses (b) of a

continuum of Huygen’s secondary sources (a).
Diffraction Migration
F-K Migration
Unmigrated section Transformation to f-k domain
x ω
ξa

ξa
ξa
t Kx

Change of slope from ξa to ξ Back-transformation to x-t domain

ω x
ξ

ξ ξ

Kx t
Downward Continuation of Measured
Reflection (Wave Equation Migration)
Wave Equation Migration
Edge Effect
Depth Migration

Lateral variation ? → Depth Migration

Image Rays

Image ray : Ray that emerges vertically and indicate the apex
of skewed diffraction curve.
CDP Number
Depth (m)
Depth Migration

Zero offset section Time migration Depth migration

Migration Types
Type Discussion

Stack The section the interpreter always wants

Depth conversion Along Vertical Strictly valid only for velocity that varies with
Raypaths depth, without structural dip
Time migration Needed when the stacked section contains
diffractions of structural dip. Valid for vertically
varying velocity. Acceptable for mild lateral
velocity variations.
Depth migration Needed when the stacked section contains
structural dip and large lateral velocity
gradients.
Prestack Partial Migration (PSPM) Poststack migration is acceptable when the
stacked section is equivalent to a zero-offset
section. This is not the case for conflicting dips
with different stacking velocities or large lateral
velocity gradients. PSPM [Dip Noveout (DMO)]
provides a better stack that can be migrated
after stack. However, PSPM only solves the
problem of conflicting dips with different
stacking velocities.
Migration Types
Type Discussion

Full-Time Migration Before The output is a migrated section. No

Stack intermediate unmigrated stacked section is
produced. This often
is not what the interpreter wants; he must have
an unmigrated stacked section and it is
migrated form. Nevertheless, this is the
rigorous solution to the problem of conflicting
dips. PSPM is a simplification of this process.
Depth Migration Before Needed when there are extremely strong
Stack lateral velocity gradients that cannot be treated
properly by stacking.
3-D Time migration After Needed when the stack contains dipping
Stack events that
Are out of the profiles plane (crossdips). After
stack, this is the most common type 3-D
migration.
3-D Depth migration After Needed when the problem of strong lateral
Stack velocity variation involves 3-D subsurface
structural complexity.
Migration Types

Type Discussion

3-D Time Migration Before Needed when PSPM fails and when the stack
Stack contain crossdips.
3-D Depth Migration Before What everyone would like to have if computer
Stack time were abundant and if the 3-D subsurface
velocity model were known acurately.
Migration Strategies
In practice, migration of seismic data requires decision making
with regards to:
• An appropriate migration strategy.
• A migration algorithm compatible with the strategy.
• Appropriate parameters for the algorithm.
• Issues concerning the input data.
• Migration velocities.

Migration strategies include:

• 2D- versus 3-D migration.
• Post versus prestack migration.
• Time versus depth migration
The spectrum of migration strategies extend from 2-D
poststack time migration to 3-D prestack depth migration.
Depending on the nature of the subsurface geology, any
other in-between combination can be selected. In practice,
2-D/3-D poststack time migration is used most often for a
good reason – it is the least sensitive to velocity errors,
and it often yields result acceptable for reliable
interpretation. Table below is an overview of different
migration strategies applied to different types of seismic
data (2-D, 3-D, stacked, and unstacked).
Case Migration
Dipping events Time migration
Conflicting dips with different Prestack migration
stacking velocities
3-D behavior of fault planes and salt 3-D migration
flanks
Strong lateral velocity variation Depth migration
associated with complex
overburden structures
Complex non hyperbolic moveout Prestack migration
3-D structures 3-D migration
Migration Algorithms
The one-way-in-depth scalar wave equation is the basis for common
migration algorithms. These algorithms do not explicitly model multiple
reflections, converted waves, surface waves, or noise. Any such energy
present in data input to migration is treated as primary reflections. Migration
algorithms can be classified under three Main categories:
• Those that are based on the integral solution to the scalar wave
equation.
• Those that are based on the finite-difference solutions, and
• Those that are based on frequency-wavenumber implementations.

Whatever the algorithm, it should desirably:

• Handle steep dips with sufficient accuracy.
• Handle lateral and vertical velocity variations.
• Be implemented, efficiently.
Migration Parameters
• After deciding on the migration strategy and the appropriate algorithm, the
analyst then need to decide on the migration parameters. Migration
aperture width is the critical parameter in Kirchhoff migration. A small
aperture causes removal of steep dips; it generates spurious horizontal
events and organizes the random noise uncorrelated from trace to trace.

• Depth step size in downward continuation is the critical parameter in

finite-different methods. An optimum depth step size is the largest depth
step with the minimum tolerable errors. Its depend on temporal and
spatial samplings, dip, velocity, and frequency. It also depends on the type
of differencing scheme used in the algorithm.

• Stretch factor is the critical parameter for Stolt migration. A constant-

velocity medium implies a stretch factor of 1. in general, the larger the
vertical velocity gradient, the smaller the stretch factor needs to be.
Aspect of Input Data
When migrating seismic data, one needs to be concerned with various
aspect of the input data set itself:

Line length or arcal extent.

The line length must be sufficient to allow a steeply dipping event to migrate
to its true subsurface location. It is a fatal error to record short profile in area
with complex geology. Also, for 3-D migration, the surface areal extent of a 3-
D survey is almost always larger than the target subsurface areal extent.

Signal to noise ratio.

Random noise at late times on a stacked section, when migrated, potentially
can be hazardous for shallower data. One may have to compromise on
migration aperture for deep data to prevent this problem to occur.

Spatial aliasing.
Trace spacing must be small enough to prevent spatial aliasing of steep dips
at high frequencies. Although this is not an issue for modern prestack data.
3-D vs 2-D Migration
Type Migration Cheap/Expensive

POST - TIME

STACK MIGRATION

PRE - DEPTH

4 Combinations Possible:
• Poststack Time Migration.
• Poststack Depth Migration.
• Prestack Time Migration.
• Prestack Depth Migration
Post-/Pre-stack Time/Depth Migration
Subsurface Model Used In Seismic
Processing

Time-migration Pre-stack time migration

Constant velocity-straight rays Varying velocities
No Migration (Note Diffraction)

Fig. X-1 is CMP stack containing conflicting dips along a major fault.
Partial Prestack Migration or Dip Moveout

Fig. X-2 is CMP stack with PSPM; compare this section with Fig. X-1.
Poststack Migration

Fig. X-3 Poststack Migration using Kirchhoff Summation of the section

in the Fig. X-1.
Prestack Migration

Fig. X-4 Prestack Migration using kirchhoff Summation of the data in

Fig. X-1.
Poststack Migration of Dip Moveout

Migration of the section in Fig. X-2. Compare this section with Fig. X-3
and Fig. X-4.
An Interpretation!

Migration of the section in Fig. X-2. Compare this section with Fig. X-3
and Fig. X-4.
Migration Exercise

• On graph paper, draw a reflector with a slope of ½ (so

that tan ½ = 26.6 degrees).

• Take your compass, center it on a midpoint, extend

vertically down to the reflector, and make a semicircle.

• Do this for many midpoints.

• Draw a new reflector tangent to the outer edge of the

circle.
Migration Exercise
Migration Exercise
Migration Exercise
Migration Exercise
Migration Exercise
 THE END OF
SEISMIC DATA PROCESSING
PART III