Epithermal Gold Deposits

Characteristics, classes & causes

Adapted from NC White, 1999

White.Noel@Bigpond.com
Epithermal terminology
Is one of the most abused words in geology.

Is it?

 a deposit style?
 a genetic class?
 a crustal environment?
 a P-T environment?
 something else?
A workable definition…

… epithermal deposits are considered to be those which

exhibit a low temperature of formation (100-300ªC,
typically 170ºC-280ºC) with characteristic hydrothermal
alteration, and with characteristic textures. A shallow
depth of formation may be inferred from these
characteristics, but may not be essential in all cases.
Contrasting epithermal styles

 Ramsome (1907) recognized that there are two

contrasting styles of epithermal deposits.
 He accurately interpreted the origin of gold deposits
associated with alunite (such as Goldfield, Nevada).
 Those observations were largely ignored until 1980.
 It is widely recognized that there are two major classes
of epithermal gold deposits.
What’s in a name?

 Low sulfur/High sulfur. (Boeham, 1986)

 Low sulfidation/High sulfidation. (Hedenquist, 1987)
 Adularia-Sericite/Acid-sulfate. (Heald, 1987)
 Adularia-Sericite/Kaolinite-alunite. (Berger & Henley, 1987)
Contrasting epithermal styles
Dominant Character Low sulfidation High sulfidation

Massive
Deposit form Veins disseminated
Common Very restricted
Textures
characteristic characteristic
Ore & Gangue Significantly Significantly
mineralogy different different

Alteration zoning Neutral pH Acid, neutral

Fluid chemistry reduced oxidized

Associated elements Zn, Pb, Hg, Cu, Pb, Hg,
with Au, Ag As, Sb, Se As, Sb, Te, Sn
Low us High Sulfidation
Low
– Open-space veins dominant
– Disseminated ore mostly
minor
– Replacement ore minor
– StockWork ore common
High
– Veins subordinate locally
dominant
– Disseminated ore dominant
– Replacement ore common
– StockWork ore minor
Textures

Low High

– Banded veins – Massive Quartz

– Drusy cavities – Vuggy Quartz
– Crustification – Massive veins
– Lattice texture – Crudely banded veins
– Breccia veins
Mineralogy of Gange
Low Sulfidation High Sulfidation
Quartz Abundant Abundant
Chalcedony Common (variable) Uncommon (minor)
Calcite Common (variable) Absent (except overprint)
Adularia Common (variable) Absent
Illite Common (abundant) Uncommon (minor)
Kaolinite Rare (except overprint) Common (minor)
Alunite Absent (except overprint) Common (minor)
Barite Common (very minor) Common (minor)
Pyrophylite Absent (except overprint) Common (variable)
-diaspore
Mineral Stability us temperature
Mineral Tª (ºC)
0 100 200 300
Alunite
Jarosite
Kaolinite
Pyrophylite
Cristobalite
Quartz
Pyrite
Smectite
Illite
Epidote
Adularia
Calcite
Hidrothermal Alteration

Low Sulfidation High Sulfidation

Deep fluid – Acid-neutral
– Near neutral pH
(mineralizing) pH <1 to >3

– Alunite Kaolinite
– Illite (Sericite)
Mineral – Pyrophylite
assemblage – Interstratified clays
– Diaspore
– Illite-Smectite
– Zoned out to Illite
Alteration Zoning and Overprinting

Low High

Deep Sericite Central Vuggy Quartz

Shallow Illite-Smectite Marginal Kaolinite-Alunite
Very Shallow Kaolinite zoned to Sericite, then
Marginal Illite-Smectite Illite-Smectite, then
Peripheral Propylitic Peripheral Propylitic

OVERPRINTING ! OVERPRINTING !
Alteration Zoning and Overprinting
Low sulfidation Steam-heated overprint High sulfidation
(Neutral pH, reduced) H2O + 2O2 H2SO4 (acidic, oxidized)
smectite Cristobalite-kaolinite- smectite
kaolinite-
alunite alunite Ore
Ore illite/smectite
vein kaolinite ± smectite Illite/smectite vuggy
illite ± adularia vein
propylitic propylitic illite
(Not to scale) CO2, H2SO4, H2S, HCl
Boiling
CO2, H2S,
NaCl Meteoric water 3H2SO4 + H2S
circulation
Equilibration
with rock 4 SO2 + 4H2O
H2O, CO2, SO2, H2S, HCl, metals

Magma
High Sulfidation Stage Process

Early stage Magmatic

fluids

Wall rock

Magmatic source
system
High Sulfidation Stage Process

Late stage
Ground wall
fractures
Meteoric water
circulation

Water condensed in
Ground wall fractures

Vuggy texture Magmatic

fluids
Mineralization time
Time
Early Late
Fluid flux

Phase G
Phase L

Hydrothermal alteration

Intense acid leaching Clay alteration

Mineralization
Metal dispersed Metals
(low pH) deposited
Main Alteration Stage

Meteoric water

0
Heated
ground water 300

400
1 Magmatic
vapors SO,
500
HCl

Magmatic brine
2
Shallow intrusion
Main ore deposition Stage

Meteoric
water

Adsorption high Heated

Pressure vapor ground
water
convective
cell

Volatile Transport
Main ore deposition Stage

Meteoric
water

Heated Mixing with

ground shallow meteoric
water water
Metal bearing
hypersaline liquid

Hypersline liquid transport

Geothermal Hot Spring Environment

Champagne pool, New Zeland Hishikari deposit, Japan

Hot Spring deposits Low sulfidation quartz adularia veins

Geothermal Hot Spring Environment
Yellowstone, USA

Sinter Terrace
Boiling of hydrothermal fluids

Associated with

 Lowering of temperature.

Associated with

 Loss of gases (mostly H2O, CO2, H2S)

 Increase in pH
 Increase in oxidation state (slight)
Boiling of hydrothermal fluids
Cristallizing Magma

Deep low salinity CO2-bearing

Magmatic Fluids

Fracture system open to surface

Depressurization at high
temperatures

Magmatic brine 29-45 wt% NaCl & low salinity vapor

Silica Deposition
0
Sinter
Lithostatic
200
Calculate for:

Water 400
+ Hydrostatic
CO2 1wt%
600

800

100ºC 200ºC 300ºC

Silica Deposition

Silica
solubility
1500

1000

500

100 200 300

T (ºC)
Gold deposition by Boiling

Au (HS-)2 + 2 H+ Au0 + 2 H2S

Adularia deposition by Boiling
HS- + H+ H2S
CO2 + H+ CO2 + H2O

Zeolite
(Epidote)
10
Wairakite Boiling
8 Ca-mont K-mica (Illite)
K-feldspar
Kaolinite

(Adularia)
6

0 2 4 6 8
Log aK+/aH+
Calcite deposition by Boiling

Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + H2O + C2O

0.70
0.60
Calcite solubility

0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
100 150 200 250 300
Tª (ºC)
General Characteristics of epithermal Gold deposits
Low sulfidation (LS)
(Adularia-sericite)
Open-space veins dominant,
Deposit stockwork ore common
form Disseminated and replacement
ore minor
Veins, cavity filling (bands,
Textures
colloforms, druses), breccias
Pyrite, electrum, gold,
Ore
sphalerite, galena
minerals
(arsenopyrite)
Gangue Quartz, chalcedony, calcite,
adularia, illite, carbonates
Au, Ag, Zn, Pb (Cu, Sb,
Metals
As, Hg, Se)
High sulfidation (HS)
(Acid-sulfate)
Disseminated ore dominant,
replacement ore common
Stockwork ore minor, veins
commonly subordinate
Wall rock replacement,
breccias, veins
Pyrite, enargite, chalcopyrite,
tennantite, covellite, gold,
tellurides
Quartz, alunite, barite,
kaolinite, pyrophyllite
Cu, Au, Ag, As (Pb, Hg, Sb, Te,
Sn, Mo, Bi)
Are there different styles?

 Gold-Silver deposits with calc-alkaline volcanic

Hichilari, Maclaughlin, Panglor
LS  Gold-Silver deposits with alkaline igneous rocks
Cripple Creek, Porgera, Ladolam, Emperor
 Silver-Gold-base metal deposits
Fresnillo, Guanajuato, Comstock, Creede
 Tin-Silver-base metal deposits
Cerro Rico, Dzhalin, Akenobe
 Gold-Silver-copper with vuggy quartz
Nansatsu, Chinkuashik, Lepanto, Goldfield, Summitville
HS  Gold-Silver-copper with pyrophyllite sericite
Peak Hill, Pueblo Viejo
 Bedded Gold-copper-barite submarine
Levakin
Key economics factors for ore deposits

– Size (tonnage) – Mineralogy

– Grade – Mineral chemistry
– Shape – Grain size
– Geomechanical properties – Texture