GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING MASTER PROGRAM

Department of Geological Engineering

Faculty of Engineering, Gadjah Mada University

Geologi Mineral Bijih Lanjutan

Endapan Mineral Ekonomis

oleh Proses (Ortho)Magmatik
Batuan Beku Mafik-Ultramafik

Dr. Lucas Donny Setijadji

Laboratorium Sumberdaya Mineral
Jurusan Teknik Geologi
Universitas Gadjah Mada

Yogyakarta, April 2021

 Ore Deposit Genetic Models (Arndt et al., 2017)

(Ortho)Magmatic Mineral Deposits are produced by accumulation

of minerals or other phases during solidification of magmas (Arndt
et al, 2017). The use of prefix “ortho” to distinguish this class from
magmatic-hydrothermal processes.
Ore Deposits based on Tectonic Setting
(Arndt et al., 2017)
Arndt et al., 2017)
Orthomagmatic
Deposits
Proses-proses Magmatik
 Klasifikasi Pembentukan Endapan Mineral
oleh Proses Magmatik
Kelas Proses Magmatik

Kristalisasi magma Mineral bijih sebagai komponen utama atau minor

(Magmatic dari batuan beku, seperti endapan intan
crystallization) pada kimberlit, REE pada karbonatit

Segregasi magma A. Separasi akibat kristalisasi sebagian dan proses yang

(Magmatic berhubungan selama diferensiasi magma, seperti
segregation) lapisan kromit dalam Bushveld complex, Afrika Selatan
B. Liquasi, ketidakbercampuran cairan. Pelepasan
sulfida, sulfida-oksida, atau lelehan oksida dari
magma, yang terakumulasi pada di bawah lelehan
silikat, seperti endapan Cu-Ni di Sudbury, Canada
Igneous Processes
• Primary minerals throughout rock:
– If the mineral is rare enough, like diamonds or really large crystals of quartz,
the mere occurrence of a mineral may be significant enough to warrant
mining.
– Diamonds and gems and large crystals in pegmatites fall into this rare
category.

• Magmatic Segregation
– Mineral settling: In a fluid magma, early-formed crystals can settle out;
dense, to bottom; light, to top. This can often occur in gabbroic intrusions.
Deposits: chromite, magnetite, platinum.

– Magmatic liquation- Liquid immiscibility

• As a magma cools, it may separate into two immiscible components.
• In some mafic/ultramafic magmatic segregation deposits, one is siliceous and
the other is sulfide or oxide rich. The denser sulfide or oxide fluid settles to the
bottom of the intrusion and solidifies. Deposits: nickel, copper
• More often, an aqueous phase separates out, causing the freezing point of the
silicic magma to drop suddenly (origin of most porphyries). The resulting
metasomatic fluids may be highly enriched in ore-forming elements and can
form hydrothermal deposits.
 Magmatic Segregation Processes
• Fractional crystallization and crystal settling: separates ore and
non-ore minerals according to their crystallization temperature. As
early crystallizing minerals form, they incorporate certain
elements, some of which are metals. These crystals may settle onto
the bottom of the intrusion, concentrating ore minerals there.
Chromite and magnetite are ore minerals that form in this way.

• Liquid immiscibility: sulfide ores containing copper, nickel or

platinum may form from this process. As a magma changes, parts
of it may separate from the main body of magma. Two liquids that
will not mix are called immiscible; oil and water are an example. In
magmas, sulfides may separate and sink below the silicate-rich part
of the intrusion or be injected into the rock surrounding it. These
deposits are found in mafic and ultramafic rocks.
Mineral Settling
Mineral Fractionalization in a Magma Chamber
Endapan kromit (magnetit, platinum) di Kompleks intrusi
Bushveld, Afrika Selatan
Endapan Mineral oleh Proses Magmatik

pada Batuan Beku Mafik-Ultramafik

 Magmatic Mineral Deposits
• The most important magmatic deposits are
restricted to mafic and ultramafic rocks which
represent the crystallization products of basaltic
or ultramafic liquids.

• The mineral deposit types include:

1. Chromite Deposits,
2. Nickel-Copper Deposits
3. Platinum Group Metals (PGM)
 Chromite Deposits
• Chromite deposits are the end product of the separation of solid phases (Cr-rich
spinets, (Fe, Mg) (Al, Cr. Fe) 2O4) from a liquid and their accumulation into chromite-
rich layers. The processes involved in the formation of chromite layers are fractional
crystallization and gravity settling. Chromite crystallizes into mineral grains within the
silicate liquid and, because they are heavier than the liquid, they sink to form a
cummulate layer at the base of the intrusive.
• There are two main types of chromite deposits:
1. Stratiform chromite deposits consist of laterally persistent chromite-rich
layers (a few mm to several m thick) alternating with silicate layers. The
silicate layers include ultramafic and mafic rocks such as dunite, peridotite,
pyroxenite and a variety of others, less commonly gabbroic rocks. They are
generally found within basal portions of mafic-ultramafic layered intrusions of
Archean age such as the Bushveld Complex in South Africa. These deposits
contain substantial reserves of poor-quality chromite (average 10.7% Cr203).
2. Podiform chromite deposits consist of pod to pencil-like, irregularly shaped
massive chromite bodies and they are predominantly found within dunitic
(olivine-rich) portions of ophiolite complexes. The rocks associated with
podiform chromites are generally referred to as "Alpine-type" peridotites and
they are usually found along major fault zones within mountain belts.
Podiform Chromite
within Ophiolite
Complex

Figure 13.4 (Winter, 2001).

Lithology and thickness of a typical
ophiolite sequence, based on the
Samial Ophiolite in Oman. After
Boudier and Nicolas (1985) Earth
Planet. Sci. Lett., 76, 84-92.
 Bushveld Igneous Complex
Stratiform Chromite Deposits in Bushveld Complex
(Layered Mafic Intrusion)
Bushveld Stratigraphy
Merensky Reef

Gabbroic anorthosite

Critical Zone

Chromitite
Anorthosite

Lower Zone
Pyroxenite

Harzburgite
 Merensky Reef

Chromite Anorthosite

Merensky Reef

Pyrrhotite + PGE minerals

A Model for the Emplacement of the Bushveld Complex
 Ni-Cu±Co Deposits
• Ni-Cu Deposits are the end of a magmatic process known as "liquid immiscibility''.
This process involves the separation from the parental magma of a sulphur-rich
liquid containing Fe-Ni-Cu. Upon cooling, the sulphur-rich liquid produces an
immiscible sulphide phase (droplets of sulphide liquid in silicate liquid, like oil in
water) from which minerals such as pyrrhotite (FeS), pentlandite (Fe,Ni)9S8, and
chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) crystalize. Typical magmatic Ni-Cu deposits tend to occur in
embayments at or near the base of their intrusive hosts.
• They occur at the base of the intrusives because :
a. immiscible sulphide liquids are heavier than silicate liquids and therefore
sink to the bottom of the magma chamber and
b. without the presence of sulphur, metals such as Ni become incorporated
into silicate crystal structures, such as pyroxene. Ni-Cu deposits are found in
layered intrusions, stocks and ultramafic sills and flows. The largest deposits
are of Archean and Proterozoic age.
• The ore in Ni-Cu deposits can be massive, net-textured or disseminated. Typical
examples of Ni-Cu deposits include the Sudbury orebodies (layered intrusion
hosted), the Kambalda orebodies in Australia (ultramafic flow hosted) and the
orebodies in the Thompson District of Manitoba (ultramafic sill hosted).
 World’s Land Based Nickel Resources
and Primary Nickel Production
(Resources Distribution by Contained Nickel)

World Ni Resource on Land Primary Ni Production

28%
Sulfide 42%
Laterite
Laterite Sulfide

58%

72%

Mt Resource % Ni Mt Ni % of Total
Sulfide 10500 0.58 62 27.8%
Laterite 12600 1.28 161 72.2%
Total 23100 0.97% 223 100
 LATERITE vs. SULPHIDE DEPOSITS

CUBA
PHILIPPINES

INDONESIA

NEW CALEDONIA

AUSTRALIA

LATERITES SULPHIDES
 Sulfide Nickel Deposits
• The Sudbury region of Ontario, Canada, produces
about 30% of the world's supply of nickel. The
Sudbury Basin deposit is theorized to have been
created by a meteorite impact event early in the
geologic history of Earth.
• Russia contains about 40% of the world's known
resources at the Norilsk deposit in Siberia. The
Russian mining company MMC Norilsk Nickel
obtains the nickel and the associated palladium for
world distribution.
 Nickel Sulfides:
Magmatic segregation

• Orthomagmatic copper-nickel-iron (-platinoid)

deposits associated with basic and ultrabasic rocks
(Evans, 1993)
• Nickel-copper sulfide ores formed by the sinking of
an immiscible sulfide liquid to the bottom of a
magma chamber or lava flow.
• Sulfides usually accumulate in hollows at the base
of the magma forming conformable sheets or
lenses
Deposit Model
 Types of Basic – Ultrabasic Rocks producing
Nickel Sulfides (Evans, 1993)
• Noritic rocks intruded into an area that has
suffered a catastrophic release of energy, e.g.
an astrobleme (Sudbury);
• Intrusions associated with flood basalts in
intracontinental rift zones (Noril'sk-Talnakh,
Duluth);
• Komatiitic and tholeiitic flows and intrusions in
greenstone belts (Kambalda, Agnew,
Pechenga).
Nickel sulfides ores (Evans, 1993)
Kambalda, West Australia

Section of a deposit
Geological Map Evans (1993)
Norils, Rusia (Evans, 1993)
The Sudbury Complex
Meteorite Impact Origin of the Sudbury Complex

Sudbury
Stratigraphy
Impact
Stratigraphy Melt

Sulphide concentrations
Sudbury Footwall-Type Deposit
 Sudbury Ni-Cu Ores
Nickel Sulfide Ore

Chalcopyrite

Pyrrhotite

Pentlandite Massive Ore

Pyrrhotite
Pentlandite (Fe,Ni)9S8
 PGM Deposits

• Platinum Group Metals (Platinum, Pt; Palladium, Pd; Iridium,

Ir; Rhodium, Rh; Osmium, Os; and Ruthenium, Ru) have
genetic affinities to both Ni-Cu-sulphides and chromites.
• However, while the fundamental processes involved in the
formation of Ni-Cu and chromite deposits are relatively
simple, the concentration and deposition of PGM appears to
be a not too well understood, diverse and multistage
process.
• Several lines of evidence indicate that PGM can
1. concentrate during high-temperature deposition of chromites,
2. be incorporated into immiscible liquids,
3. be remobilized and reconcentrated during metasomatic and
hydrothermal activity.
 PGM Deposits
• So far significant PGM production has come from:
1. The Merenski Reef of the Bushveld Complex in South
Africa,
2. The Ni-Cu deposits of the Noril'sk-Talnakh District in the
U.S.S.R.,
3. By-product of several Ni-Cu deposits (Sudbury, etc.),
4. Placers derived from zoned (Alaskan-type) ultramafic
intrusions (Columbia, Goodnews Bay, Tulameen) (Catatan:
placer PGM juga teridentifikasi di Pegunungan Meratus, Kalsel)
5. Metasomatic dunite pipes of the Bushveld Complex. The bulk
of present world production comes from the Bushveld and
Russian deposits and most presently known reserves are
within Merenski-type environments (Bushveld and Stillwater
Complexes).
 REE production (USGS, 2015)
British Geological
Survey (2011)
 Merensky Reef

Chromite Anorthosite

Merensky Reef

Pyrrhotite + PGE minerals

 PGM Deposits
• The ores of the "Merenski" reef form thin (less than 1 m) but laterally persistent,
disseminated, sulphide-poor horizons within polycyclic mafic-ultramafic cumulate
sequences one-third of the way up from the base of the Bushveld intrusion. Principal
ore minerals are pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, pentlandite, PGM sulphides, arsenides and
tellurides. The Noril'sk-Talnakh orebodies are essentially typical Ni-Cu deposits
containing anomalously high concentrations of PGM (6 g/tonne material).
• They occur at or near the base of complexely differentiated gabbro-dolerite
intrusions (50 to 350 m thick) emplaced during late Permian to Triassic time during
rifting of the Siberian platform. The sills are considered to be feeders to overlying
plateau basalts.
• The mineralogy of the ores include pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, pentlandite and a great
variety of PGM minerals. Placers derived from Alaskan-type intrusions are the results
of the breakdown, transport and concentration of Pt-Fe alloys mainly associated
with Fe-rich chromite layers from the dunitic portions of thse complexes.
• The metasomatic dunite pipes of the Bushveld Complex played a significant role as
high-grade platinum producers during the early days of platinum mining in South
Africa. They consist of central zones of Fe-rich dunite enveloped by shells of dunite
and pyroxenite.
Orthomagmatic Deposits (Arndt et al., 2017)
 Other Deposits Associated with
Mafic-Ultramafic Magmas

• Diamond within kimberlite and lampropyre

intrusions
• REE in carbonatite and peralkaline magmas
 Continental Alkaline Magmatism.

Figure 19.21. Hypothetical cross section of an Archean craton with an extinct ancient mobile belt (once associated with subduction) and a
young rift. The low cratonal geotherm causes the graphite-diamond transition to rise in the central portion. Lithospheric diamonds
therefore occur only in the peridotites and eclogites of the deep cratonal root, where they are then incorporated by rising magmas (mostly
kimberlitic- “K”). Lithospheric orangeites (“O”) and some lamproites (“L”) may also scavenge diamonds. Melilitites (“M”) are generated
by more extensive partial melting of the asthenosphere. Depending on the depth of segregation they may contain diamonds. Nephelinites
(“N”) and associated carbonatites develop from extensive partial melting at shallow depths in rift areas. After Mitchell (1995) Kimberlites,
Orangeites, and Related Rocks. Plenum. New York. Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
 Continental
Alkaline
Magmatism.

Figure 19.19. Model of an idealized kimberlite

system, illustrating the hypabyssal dike-sill complex
leading to a diatreme and tuff ring explosive crater.
This model is not to scale, as the diatreme portion is
expanded to illustrate it better. From Mitchell
(1986) Kimberlites: Mineralogy, Geochemistry, and
Petrology. Plenum. New York. Winter (2001) An
Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic
Petrology. Prentice Hall.
REE deposits in northern Vietnam
Different types of REE deposits and prospects are found in
the Red River Zone, northern Vietnam.
Na
Son
Nam Sin
Xe Quyen
Dong Ben
Pao Den
Nui
Phao

Modified from McLean (2001) and Ishihara

 Top 10 Global Ni Projects

https://ekonomi.bisnis.com/read/20210319/44/1369616/10-proyek-nikel-
terbesar-di-dunia-ri-diwakili-satu-perusahaan-ini
 Tugas Minggu Ini
• Buat kajian ringkas potensi endapan Nickel tipe
orthomagmatik atau Ni sulfida di Indonesia
THE END