Magmatic Ore-Forming Processes - Additional Lecture

Magmatic ore Deposits
Pauline.jeanneret@geo.uu.se
❖ Magmatic Ore Deposits
1- igneous ore-forming processes 3- Deposits formed through extreme fractionation of

Classification of igneous rocks primitive magma: REE Pegmatite
Magmas and metallogeny
Why are some magmas more fertile than others? 4- Deposits formed from small-fraction partial melts
Partial melting & fractional crystallisation as ore-forming processes Carbonatite & Alkaline intrusions (LREE) ores
Liquid immiscibility as an ore-forming process
5- Kimberlites: formed through incorporation of a
2- Deposits associated with primitive magma: mineral from depth in the Earth into magma
2.1 Ni-Cu-PGE Magmatic Sulphide Deposits
2.1.1 Sulfide-rich, exploited primarily for Ni and Cu
o Rift and continental flood basalt
o Accumulations of sulfide in komatiites
o Sulfide accumulation beneath a meteorite impact
2.1.2 Sulfide-poor dominated by PGEs and Au:
o Stratiform accumulations known as « reef-type deposit »
o Stratabound sulfide disseminations known as “contact-type »
2-2 Kiruna-Type Magnetite Apatite Iron Ore.
Introduction Magmatic Ni-Cu-PGE REE pegmatite Carbonatite and Alkaline Intr. Kimberlites
Crystallization of basic magmas can be

accompanied by syngenetic concentration
of ore minerals = magmatic ore deposit
This can lead to the formation of economic

ore deposits of chromite, Ti-magnetite,
ilmenite, pentlandite, chalcopyrite and
platinum-group minerals (PGM)..
➢ The question is how these

concentrations come about?
❑ Classification of igneous rocks
Plutonic/intrusive) rocks formed at depth that cooled

and crystallized slowly.
Volcanic rocks often contain isolated larger crystals

called phenocrysts enclosed in a fine-grained or even
glassy groundmass.
For each volcanic rock there is a corresponding plutonic

rock that has an identical composition but a different
name.
Parts of plutons, in particular, can be strongly enriched

in certain crystals as a result of the crystals sinking or
floating. Although corresponding rocks mainly made of
accumulated crystals are called cumulates (Ex:
peridotites), their chemical composition does not match
that of any melt.
A more detailed classification can be based on mineral content.

This can be done by determining the proportions of the light-colored so-
called felsic minerals quartz (Q), alkali feldspar (A), plagioclase (P), and
feldspathoids (F) and determining their name. So-called mafic minerals
(mostly dark-colored minerals such as olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and
mica) are ignored in this diagram.
Basaltic magma is a melt formed in the Earth’

mantle that solidifies at depth to form a gabbro or
extrudes at a volcano as basalt lava.
Gabbro consists mainly of plagioclase with some

olivine and pyroxene. Slight fractionation results in
the composition of plagioclase changing and the
corresponding rock diorite (extrusive: andesite) plots
in the same field in the diagram.
Further fractionation leads in the direction of

granite.
Chemical classification of volcanic rocks in the TAS diagram wt% Na2O + K2O
versus wt% SiO2; after Le Bas et al. (1992); q = normative proportion of quartz,
ol = normative proportion of olivine
Only so-called ultramafic rocks where mafic minerals

account for more than 90% of the rock use a different
diagram.
❑ Classification of
igneous rocks
Granites are often additionally

classified according to their origin.
I-type granites can be produced either by

fractional crystallization from mantle-
derived basaltic magma or by partial
melting of a gabbro that once crystallized
from basaltic magma = typical of
magmatism in subduction zones
igneous rocks

S-type granites derive from sediments that

have melted and form in the thick crust of
mountain ranges.
igneous rocks

A-type granites (anorogenic) are formed in

extensional settings where melts derived
from a previously enriched mantle and
melts formed in continental crust play a role
❑ Magmas and metallogeny
It is well known that different igneous rocks host ore deposits

with different metal associations, and that this must be related
somehow to (1) the environments in which magmas are
generated and the (2) resulting compositional characteristics
they inherit from their various settings.
It is widely recognized, for example, that many of the

chalcophile and siderophile elements (such as Ni, Co, Pt, Pd,
and Au) are more likely to be associated with mafic rock types,
whereas concentrations of many lithophile elements (such as
Li, Sn, Zr, U, and W) are typically found in association with
felsic or alkaline rock types.
❑ Magmas and metallogeny Magmatic deposits can roughly be divided into 3 groups:
(1) Deposits associated with primitive magmas that originate directly from the Earth’ mantle such as basalt. Such basic
and ultrabasic magmas can form deposits of chromium, nickel, platinum, iron, titanium, and vanadium. Includes the
huge layered mafic intrusions (LMIs) such as Bushveld (South Africa), Great Dyke (Zimbabwe), and Sudbury (Canada) that
are among the most important deposits of all. It also includes komatiites, and Kiruna-type deposits.
(2) Deposit related to acidic melts. They can be formed by strong fractionation from a primitive melt originally derived
from the mantle or by melt formation in the crust. Of economic interest are the late magmatic residual melts that may
contain high contents of rare elements such as lithium, beryllium, rare-earth elements (REEs), niobium, tantalum,
uranium, and thorium. The main focus of such interest is on pegmatites that have particularly large crystals.
(3) alkali-rich magmas/rocks that occur at continental rifts and hotspots. Form under special conditions in the Earth’
mantle. Fractionation allows them to develop into very special and diverse alkaline rocks some of which have very high
contents of rare elements such as REEs, niobium, zirconium, and uranium. In addition to silicate magmas, carbonatites
also play a role. They are responsible for the most important REE and niobium deposits. Phosphate, copper, iron,
zirconium, are also extracted from carbonatites.
➢ Understanding ore genesis processes, therefore, requires a knowledge of lithospheric architecture, and also of the
origin and nature of the igneous rocks in this section of the Earth.
Oceanic crust, which covers 2/3 of the Earth surface, is thin (<10
km) and has a composition and structure that is relatively simple
and consistent over its entire extent. 0.4 km thick
Main layers:
1–.5 km thick
(1) 0.4 km thick of pelagic sediments
(2) 1–.5 km thick layer of Pillow lavas and sheeted dikes =
dominantly basaltic in composition
(3) Main body of oceanic crust, plutonic in character and formed
by crystallization and fractionation of basaltic magma. This
cumulate assemblage comprises mainly gabbro, pyroxenite, and
peridotite.
Sections of deformed and metamorphosed oceanic lithosphere

can be observed in ophiolite complexes which represent
segments of the ocean that have been thrust or obducted onto
continental margins during collision.
❑ Magmas and metallogeny: types of ore deposits that one might expect to find associated with ophiolitic rocks
Upper crust made up of felsic to intermediate compositions

(granite to diorite) together with the sedimentary detritus
derived from the weathering and erosion of this material.
Archean continental fragments (greater than 2.5 Ga) also
contain a significant component of greenstone belt
material, representing preserved fragments of ancient
oceanic crust.
Lower crust is variable in composition but is typically made

up of hotter, and usually more dense, material. This is
because T°C and P in the crust increase with depth at
average rates of some 25°C/km and 30 Mpa/km respectively.
The lower crust is not necessarily compositionally different from the upper crust, but exists at higher metamorphic grades.
Some of the lower crust may be more mafic in composition, comprising material such as amphibolite, gabbro, and
anorthosite.
❑ Magmas and metallogeny types of ore deposits that one might expect to find hosted in rocks of continental crust
❑ Why are some magmas more fertile than others?

Geochemical inheritance is clearly an important factor in understanding the nature of ore-forming processes in igneous
rocks. Magma may inherit a surplus of potential ore-forming trace elements because the source material from which it was
derived was itself enriched in these components. Further concentration of incompatible trace elements into residual
magma, or of compatible trace elements into crystallizing phases, will take place during cooling and solidification of the
magma.
➢ why certain portions of the

Earth’ crust appear to be so
much better endowed in
mineral deposits than others?
Zou et al.2013
❑ Why are some magmas more fertile than others?

Two modes of ore formation are of particular significance:
1. Concentration of ore minerals by partial melting and fractional crystallization: during partial melting of rock certain
elements preferentially enter the melt while others remain behind. As soon as crystals form during cooling the composition of
the remaining melt changes and continues to do so as crystallization progresses. Separating crystals from the melt (fractional
crystallization) results in rock with a completely different composition.
2. Separation of sulfide or oxide liquids from otherwise silicate-dominated magmas due to liquid immiscibility upon cooling.
Sometimes liquid immiscibility occurs in which magma is separated into 2 differently composed melts. Such processes lead to
effective fractionation that can enrich certain elements to such an extent that an ore deposit is formed.
heating
❑ Partial melting and Fractional crystallisation as ore-forming processes
Fractional crystallisation of basic magmas can lead to concentration of oxidic ore minerals, such as chromite, ilmenite and
Ti- magnetite as well as of platinum-group minerals.
Ores of this type are frequently related to layered intrusions of gabbro or norite as well as to their differentiates that are
represented by ultramafic rocks, such as dunite, peridotite or pyroxenite, or by genetically related felsic rocks, such as
anorthosite.
In the mafic intrusive bodies, ore minerals can occur as massive layers but they can also be distributed in the mafic host
rock as volumetrically subordinate constituents. A feature typical of layered intrusions are cumulate structures.
heating
❑ Partial melting and Fractional crystallization as ore-forming pr.
Instead of melting completely at a certain temperature (melting

point) rocks melt continuously over a temperature interval that
lies between solidus and liquidus and depends on respective
composition and pressure.
Solidus is the temperature at which the fist melt is generated

when a rock is heated (or when the last residual melt solidifies
when magma cools).
Liquidus is the temperature at which the last crystals disappear

during heating and the rock is completely fused (or the fist crystals
form when magma cools down).
o Mantle (from ~10-50 to ~2900 km) that

constitutes a large volume of the planet,
is not molten, but rather a solid that
can behave plastically.
o However, some of the rocks are found Why do Rocks Melt on Earth and where ?
entirely molten within the Earth.
❑ Partial melting and Fractional crystallization as ore-forming pr.
ToC prevailing in the Earth’ mantle are normally below the solidus
Adiabatic
of peridotite; hence the mantle is not molten.
Decompression
A melt is generated when the ToC of the mantle is unusually high or
when the melting ToC is reduced by the presence of water. H20 increase
• under mid-ocean ridges and so-called hotspots where hot

mantle material rises (decompression melting).
• subduction zones where magmas have an increased H20

content right from the start. Mantle region affected is only
partially melted with some melt (maximum 10–5%) occurring
between mineral grains.
Anorthite
❑ Partial melting and Fractional crystallization as ore-forming processes
Melts originating from the mantle almost always have the composition
of basalt
➢ How is melt composition defined? Forsterite
Composition of the first batch of melt corresponds to the eutectic

composition of peridotite (small differences in the details).
Diopside
Eutectic phase diagram describes behavior of the alloys, 2 or more

components of which are completely soluble in liquid state and
entirely insoluble in solid state.
❑ Partial melting and Fractional crystallization as ore-forming processes
Melts originating from the mantle almost always have the composition
of basalt
➢ How is melt composition defined?
Composition of the first batch of melt corresponds to the eutectic

composition of peridotite (small differences in the details).
Eutectic phase diagram describes behavior of the alloys, 2 or more

components of which are completely soluble in liquid state and
entirely insoluble in solid state.

ToC and composition of the eutectic depend on P, CO2 content, various trace elements, and other factors. Moreover, the
degree of partial melting (i.e. the ratio liquid / (liquid + solid)) also has an effect on melt composition. (cf. Basaltic series)
➢ Such fractionation is not restricted to the major elements.
A distribution coefficient can be specified for all elements according to which they
either preferentially enter the melt or remain in the peridotite.
Elements that tend to remain in the rock are called compatible such as chromium
and nickel. Elements enriched in the melt are called incompatible.
❖ Magmatic Ore Deposits The brown stripe marks the border between
compatible and incompatible
❑ Partial melting and Fractional crystallisation as ore-forming (from Okrusch and Matthes 2009)
processes
Incompatible elements are enriched in the melt during partial

melting and fractional crystallization, while compatible
elements are depleted.
Whether an element can be integrated into the crystal lattice of

the minerals present (i.e., whether it is compatible) depends
primarily on the ionic radius and the ionic charge. Incompatible
elements include large ion lithophile elements (LILEs) and
high-field-strength elements (HFSEs; =small radius but a high
charge).
Magmatic deposits rich in compatible elements are associated

with primitive basic magmas
while deposits of incompatible elements may be formed in
association with strongly fractionated acidic melts.
When basaltic magma can rise relatively undisturbed there is

minimal fractionation (oceanic crust )
Hotspot
However, if magma intrudes into continental crust that has a
lower density, then it can literally get stuck and fractionate
until its density is so low that it rises further.
Magmatic series :
Ex: Basalts of the mid-ocean ridges = tholeiitic trend:
iron and titanium are strongly enriched while SiO2 and alkalis
hardly change; hence basalts become rich in iron.
It is only later that SiO2 and alkalis are enriched (i.e., after
magnetite starts to be crystallized). The tholeiitic trend mid-ocean ridges
assumes low oxygen fugacity, which delays the oxidation of Subduction
iron and thus the crystallization of magnetite.
❖ Magmatic Ore Deposits STUDY CASE – PhD 2016: Behavior of U-bearing phases: Monazite
❑ Partial melting and Fractional crystallisation as ore-forming

processes
➢ Monazite: (REE, Th, U)PO4

processes
M2-D2

processes
❑ Liquid immiscibility as an ore-forming process

Under certain circumstances magma can be separated into 2 different
melts that are not miscible with each other much like water and oil.
When magma of a certain composition encounters the so-called

solvus while cooling down it segregates.
The mixing of two magmas that have compositions on both sides of

the miscibility gap leads to the same effect. Segregation results in an
emulsion made up of two differently composed melts. Emulsified
melt droplets have a different density than the rest of the melt and
can accumulate on the floor or under the roof of a magma chamber.
However, the segregated melt often remained in the emulsion until
the pluton had solidified.
➢ The segregation of immiscible magmas plays an important

role in the formation of deposits because it leads to the very
effective fractionation of certain elements
❑ Liquid immiscibility as an ore-forming process

there are three important miscibility gaps in natural magmas: (1) Silicate melt–iron oxide melt, (2) Silicate melt–sulfide
melt and (3) Silicate melt–carbonatitic melt
(1)Silicate melt–iron oxide melt: concerns basaltic magmas that follow tholeiitic fractionation in which iron accumulates
strongly in the melt. Size of the gap and thus the composition of the two melts depend on the oxygen content and the
content of phosphorus, titanium, and iron. Ex: segregation in the groundmass of tholeiitic basalts where iron-rich melt has a
significant silicate content. IOA (kiruna type) type?
(2) Silicate melt–sulfide melt : segregation between silicate and sulfide melt is of greater importance and often happens when
it comes to basic magmas. During segregation elements such as copper, nickel, cobalt, gold, and platinum (chalcophile and
siderophile elts) effectively fractionate into the sulfide melt as long as of course they are present in the melt. This is the most
important process in the formation of nickel and platinum deposits.
(3)Silicate melt–carbonatitic melt: third miscibility gap occurs mainly in alkali-rich and silica-undersaturated (alkaline)
magmas. If they have a very high CO2 content, then a carbonate melt (carbonatite) may be segregated.
Mentimeter time
Go to www.menti.com
❖Deposits associated with primitive magma:
2- Deposits associated with primitive magma:

o Stratabound sulfide disseminations known as “contact-type»
❑ Ni-Cu-PGE Magmatic Sulphide Deposits : classification and subtypes

Magmatic Sulfide Deposit fall into 2 major categories: (1) sulfide-rich, exploited primarily for Ni and Cu;
(2) sulfide-poor (typically less than 5% sulfide), dominated by the platinum-group elements (PGEs) and Au.
❑ Ni-Cu-PGE Magmatic Sulphide Deposits : Grade and tonnage

account for ~56% of the world’s Ni production and over 96% of Pt, Pd
and the other PGE production (Mudd and Jowitt 2014).
Among Ni-Cu deposits, Ni grades are typically between 0.7 and 3

percent, and Cu grades are between 0.2 and 2 %.
Ore tonnages of individual deposits range from a few hundred

thousands to a few tens of millions.
Two giant Ni-Cu districts stand out above all the rest in the world:
Sudbury, Ontario, and Noril’sk-Talnakh, Russia. Other major Ni-Cu
districts include the Thompson, Voisey’s Bay, and Raglan districts in
Canada, Kambalda (Australia).
FIGURE 4. Grade and tonnage plots of global magmatic Ni-Cu sulphide deposits.
(A) Tonnages vs. Ni grades; (B) Tonnages vs. Cu grades; (C) Tonnages vs. PGE
grades. (Prepared from data in Eckstrand et al., 2004: in some cases modifi ed.)
Inclined contours show quantities of contained metals in each fi gure; tonnes
for Ni and Cu, and kg for PGE.
❖ Magmatic Ore Deposits Zientek, 2012, USGS
❑ Ni-Cu-PGE Magmatic Sulphide Deposits :
Most important platinum-rich PGE district in

the world is the Bushveld Complex, South
Africa (Pt/Pd = 1.35), which contains two
major types of PGE deposits.
The next in importance is the Noril’sk-Talnakh

district (Siberia), which is exceptionally Pd-rich
(Pd/Pt = 3.5) as a by-product of its Ni-Cu ores.
Sudbury district, because of its size, also

produces significant amounts of PGE, although
PGE tenors are comparatively low
❑ Ni-Cu-PGE Magmatic Sulphide Deposits : Grade and tonnage
Ripley and Li 2018
❑ Tectonic setting
generally occur in intracratonic settings associated
with mantle plume activity.
❑ Sulfide-rich Ni–Cu-dominant deposits are

commonly located close to the margins of ancient
Archean cratonic blocks = plume impingement at
the base of the craton, with consequent channeling
of the magmas into major crustal fault systems
around the margins.
A number of Ni–Cu deposits (Central Asian Orogenic
Belt in China) appear to be associated with
convergent tectonics and subduction processes.
❑ PGE-dominant deposits in layered intrusions are

more commonly located in the interiors of stable
cratons.
❑ Tectonic setting
Ripley and Li 2018
❑ The nature of magmatic sulfides ores Mineralogy
Range in sulfide contents from 0,1 % in some stratiform PGE ores to

100% sulfide in some Ni–Cu deposits.
Almost all unaltered magmatic sulfide ores, have a characteristic
assemblage of: pyrrhotite–pentlandite ((Ni,Fe)9S8 – chalcopyrite–PGM
This assemblage formed from the cooling and crystallization of a

magma-derived sulfide matte.
❖ Magmatic Ore Deposits pyrrhotite (Po) and pentlandite (Pn)

Textural relationships between sulphides and host
silicates are key evidence for their magmatic origin.
(1) frozen emulsion of immiscible silicate and

sulphide liquids (Fig. 4A).
(2) matrix textures (Fig. 4B), where sulphide form a

continuous 3D matrix enclosing cumulus silicates
(2) interspinifex ores in komatiites (Fig. 4C), where

sulphide occupies the original spaces between
dendritic olivine plates
(3) sub-spherical globular ores (Fig. 4D)
(4) breccia textures, where sulphide liquid has

percolated through the pore space between wall
rock clasts in an intrusion breccia (Fig. 1B).
❖ Magmatic Ore Deposits pyrrhotite (Po) and pentlandite (Pn)
❑ ORE-FORMING PROCESSES: Sulfide rich NI-CU-PGE deposit
The great majority of magmatic sulfide deposits form from much the same sequence of three processes:
1) Generation of a sulfide–silicate liquid emulsion;
2) Physical separation of a mixture of sulfide liquid droplets and cumulus silicate minerals from this emulsion;
3) Deposition and coalescence of sulfide liquid in specific sites.
Solubility of sulfur in silicate magma depends not only on the temperature but also on the redox state (oxygen fugacity)
and FeO content of the melt. Accordingly, other processes can trigger segregation in addition to cooling. A simple
possibility is contamination with external sulfur. Many sediments have a significant sulfur content. If they are melted by
and mixed with basic magma, then sulfur saturation can easily be exceeded. Under certain circumstances the mixing of
two different magmas can also lead to a composition that is exactly right for segregation. Finally, segregation can also be
triggered by crystallization of an FeO-rich phase such as magnetite.
❖ Partial Melting of Sulfide-Bearing Mantle
Sulfide liquid can be generated at source where the degree of

partial melting is low enough to produce melting of the sulfide
component of the source but the sulfide liquid does not
completely dissolve in the silicate partial melt = immiscibility
The S content of silicate magmas in equilibrium with matte (S

content at sulfide liquid saturation, or SCSS) increases with
decreasing pressure such that sulfide-saturated magmas
generated in the mantle are likely to be undersaturated on
arrival in the upper crust.
❖ Fractional Crystallization of Silicate Magma
Sulfur behaves as an incompatible element under sulfide

undersaturated conditions.
Thus, fractional crystallization causes S content to increase.
Sulfide liquation (i.e. nucleation and growth of immiscible sulfide

liquid droplets) occurs once the S content of the magma exceeds the
SCSS.
❑ ORE-FORMING PROCESSES: Sulfide rich NI-CU-PGE deposit Sulfide saturated Sulfide undersaturated magma
magma
❖ Generation of Sulfide Liquids
Mantle-derived magmas having potential to form Ni-Cu-
PGE deposits must have been produced by relatively high
degrees of partial melting and S-undersaturation
whereas, PGE remained at the mantle source with sulfides

during low degrees of partial melting, which produced S-
saturated and PGE-poor magmas.
➢ Thus, S-saturated primary magmas have the potential to

form Ni-Cu deposits rather than a Ni-Cu-PGE deposit.
Nickel is a very compatible element and is therefore quickly

removed from the melt during fractional crystallization.
Although the concentration of PGEs changes minimally
during fractional crystallization, continued fractionation
also reduces the melt quantity and thus the PGE budget to
be absorbed by the sulfide melt.
For platinum that are only present in small amounts in the magma but fractionate strongly in segregated melts the so-
called R factor plays a role in addition to the distribution coefficient.
R factor describes the quantitative ratio between silicate magma and sulfide magma in equilibrium. If a small amount
of sulfide magma exchanges elements with a lot of silicate magma, then elements such as platinum are enriched in the
sulfide melt to particularly high concentrations. A significant deposit forms when sulfide melts segregate relatively
early during fractional crystallization of the original magma.
In order to achieve ore grade sulfide mineralization a very high R-factor is required: the sulfide liquid must equilibrate
with significant quantities of metal-bearing silicate magma. In the case of Ni and Cu, they are in sufficient abundance in
mantle-derived magmas that they only require R-factors of 100s to 1000s to yield ore grade mineralization. In contrast,
low concentration elements like Pt (and other PGE) require significantly higher R-factors, ~10000 or higher, to achieve ore
grade
Figure 1. Concentration of Ni in a sulfide liquid in

equilibrium with a silicate magma as a function of R-
factor and initial concentration (Co); DNi = 500. Notably,
at a given R-factor the initial concentration of Ni in the
silicate melt will control the tenor (grade) of the sulfide
liquid. It is also notable, that with increasing R-factor
there is an increase in the grade of Ni in the sulfide
liquid
Figure 2. R-factor models for various Ni, Cu, and Pt (DNi = 500 ,
DCu = 1500, and DPt = 10,000). Also shown is an approximate
ore grade for the various commodities.
this diagram illustrates the importance of both the starting
concentration of an element (Co) and also how increased R-
factor is required to generate ore grade mineralization.
Also evident is that for PGE-rich deposits the R-factor requires
is an order of magnitude higher (or more) than it is for the base
metals Ni and Cu, and explains why many PGE-rich deposits are
associated with large igneous provinces with high volumes of
magmatism.
Wang et al.2018

❖ Mixing of Two Magmas
Mechanism of mixing two magmas both of which are at or close to sulfide-liquid saturation can give rise to a hybrid
magma with transient sulfide supersaturation. This process has been invoked to explain the origin of PGE reefs associated
with major magma influxes in large chambers, such as the Merensky Reef of the Bushveld Complex.
❖ Incorporation of External Crustal S
Addition of external S is regarded as the dominant process in the formation of all komatiite-hosted ores and in the great
majority of intrusion-hosted deposits. A variety of mechanisms exist for incorporating external S, but direct melting of
physically incorporated sulfidic country-rock fragments (xenoliths) to form sulfide ‘xenomelts’ is the fastest and most
effective.
❑ Ni-Cu-PGE Magmatic Sulphide Deposits : The Form of Ore-Hosting Magma Bodies
Great diversity of form in the magma bodies that host Ni–Cu-dominant, sulfide-rich orebodies. All represent the products of
magma flowing through restricted conduits or channels, leaving behind an accumulated residue of sulfide liquid and cumulus
silicate minerals.
feeder tubes or channels within

extensive komatiite lava-flow fields
dominated by PGEs : large sill-like or boat-shaped

layered mafic–ultramafic intrusions
❑ Ni-Cu-PGE Magmatic Sulphide Deposits : The Form of Ore-Hosting Magma Bodies
c) feeders to large igneous province volcanism in

the form of sill–dike combinations
Tube-like conduits: CFB (Figs. 2D, E)
❑ Ni-Cu-PGE Magmatic Sulphide Deposits : Relation between LIP and these deposit
Large igneous provinces (LIPs) represent significant reservoirs

of energy and metals that can either drive or contribute to a
variety of metallogenic systems.
(1)LIPs form the primary source of commodities within

mineral deposits (e.g., orthomagmatic Ni-Cu-PGE sulfides, or
Nb-Ta-REE and diamonds for often LIP-related carbonatites and
kimberlites, respectively)
(2) LIPs either provide the energy to drive hydrothermal

systems or can act as source rocks for hydrothermal ore
deposits (e.g., volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits
(3) weathering can concentrate elements such as Al and Ni-Co

within laterites that develop from exposed LIP mafic-ultramafic
rocks in tropical climates, and for Nb, Ta, and REE in laterites
from associated carbonatites;
❑ Ni-Cu-PGE Magmatic Sulphide Deposits : Relation between LIP and these deposit

❖ Rift and continental flood basalt-associated mafic sills and dyke-like bodies
Ni-Cu deposits of the rift and continental flood basalt subtype are the products of the
magmatism that accompanies intracrustal rifting events. Include the largest deposit,
Noril’sk-Talnakh, (12.6 Mt of contained Ni)
Features that these deposits tend to have in common: associated with large magma
systems, and that within these systems the Ni-Cu sulphide ores tend to be associated
with conduits or feeders to the larger igneous masses. Much of the sulphide has been
derived by contamination of the magma through incorporation of S from adjoining
wall rocks.
Noril’sk-Talnakh: The Ni-Cu-PGE ores of the Noril’skTalnakh district are spatially

associated with the huge Siberian flood basalt magmatic suite.

❖ Rift and continental flood basalt-associated mafic sills and dyke-like bodies
In the Noril’sk-Talnakh area, the sedimentary strata
form a gentle north–south-trending syncline.
Intruded into this sequence are elongate, gently
dipping sill-like mafic bodies that underlie the 3.5 km
thick lava sequence.
These are the units with which the ores are

associated, and that are considered to be feeders to
the overlying volcanic rocks.
The sills have thicknesses of a few tens of m, lateral

extents of a few hundred m, and lengths of a few km.
exceptionally rich in PGE. Noril’sk is the world’s

leading producer of Pd, and supplies about 20% of
the world’s Pt, second only to the Bushveld

❖ Accumulations of sulfide in komatiites
Komatiitic Ni-Cu deposits are widely distributed in the world,
mainly in Neoarchean and Paleoproterozoic terranes.
Major Ni-Cu producing districts and other prominent deposits

are found in Australia, Canada, Brazil, Zimbabwe, Finland, and
Karelia (Russia).
The komatiitic subtype of Ni-Cu sulphide deposits occurs for
the most part in 2 different settings:
(1) as komatiitic volcanic flows and sills in mostly Neoarchean
greenstone belts. Greenstone belts are typical terranes found
in many Archean cratons, and may represent intra-cratonic rift
zones.
Ex: the Kambalda district from greenstone belts in Western The liquid-equivalent portions of ultramafic komatiitic
Australia. rocks are magnesium-rich (18%– 32% MgO), and
(2) Paleoproterozoic komatiitic sills associated with rifting at therefore the precursor magmas are very hot and fluid.
cratonic margins. Ex: the Thompson district of the Thompson
Nickel Belt, in northern Manitoba.

❖ Accumulations of
sulfide in komatiites

❖ Sulfide accumulation beneath a meteorite impact
Sudbury is the only known representative of this type of Ni-
Cu deposit. Because meteorite impacts are random events on
the earth’s surface, there is no possible regional geological
control on their distribution.
MI took place at 1850 Ma, at the boundary between

Neoarchean gneisses (about 2711 Ma) to the north and
Paleoproterozoic volcano-sedimentary rocks of the overlying
Huronian Supergroup (about 2450 Ma) to the south
The impact produced a crater some 200 km in diametre, as

well as radiating and concentric fracture/breccia zones that
penetrated the surrounding wall rocks for distances of tens of
Kms. The impact generated a H-T melt layer that occupied the
floor of the impact crater.

On cooling, the melt differentiated into a lower norite unit and an
overlying granophyre, separated by a thinner gabbro layer.
Contacts between these units are gradational, and finer-scale layering is

absent.
A discontinuous, more mafic basal unit termed the sublayer contains most
of the Ni-Cu ores and abundant xenolithic clasts.
The melt also intruded some of the radiating breccia zones, forming many
km long quartz diorite dykes (offsets) extending outward from the SIC, and
these also contain Ni-Cu ores .
❖ Magmatic Ore Deposits Rock is broken by shock waves and subsequent movement and is partly melted
(red). With large craters the center rebounds to form a central uplift. This is
known to collapse again with the result that very large craters have multiple
rings. Finally the ash cloud rains down and forms a tuff-like fallback breccia.

❖ Sulfide-poor dominated by PGEs and Au: Stratiform accumulations known as « reef-type deposit »
Economic Platinum Group Element deposits are extremely rare. 2 districts: (1) Bushveld and (2) Noril’sk-Talnakh, supply
the majority of the world’s PGE, although Noril’sk-Talnakh has not been considered primarily a PGE deposit. Stillwater is
the only other significant PGE producer of this type.
2 main characteristics:
▪ Few economic PGE deposits in the world but size of their host intrusions is really huge. Mafic magmas have very low
contents of PGE. Despite the high R factor of PGE, the sulphide has apparently equilibrated with large proportions of
magma to form economic PGE deposits.
▪ Very small amount of sulphide (less than 3%) with which the PGE are associated. Sparsely disseminated sulphide is
mainly chalcopyrite, but also includes pentlandite and pyrrhotite. Pentlandite is the only common sulphide mineral
that contains a significant amount of any PGE, in this case Pd.
Small amount of sulphide appears due to the fact that the only S involved is the original mantle S, with little or no
addition from the intruded wall rocks. Because the solubility of S in mafic magmas is quite low, the amount of sulphide
produced when the magma reaches saturation is very small, resulting in small, sparsely dispersed sulphides.
Two distinct modes of PGE deposits are (1) the reef type, and (2) the magmatic breccia type. Of the two, only the reef
type has proved to be a major producer.

Reef or stratiform subtype of PGE deposits invariably occurs in large,

well-layered mafic/ultramafic intrusions.
Most important examples include the Merensky Reef and UG-2

chromitite reef of the Western and Eastern Bushveld, the J-M Reef of
the Stillwater Complex, and the Main Sulphide zone of the Great
Dyke.
All PGE reefs are typically more or less conformable, relatively thin
layers (from less than one to a few metres) within the well-layered
sequence of the intrusions.

❖ Sulfide-poor dominated by PGEs and Au:
The Bushveld Complex is a mafic/ultramafic

layered intrusion (2.0 Ga) that extends over
an area of 240 by 350 km in South Africa.
Remarkable lateral extent of the Merensky

Reef and the UG-2 chromitite, the two
producing PGE layers.

The Complex’s total thickness of over 7 km is made up of four stratigraphic
zones:
(1) the Lower zone of bronzitites, harzburgites, and dunites;
(2) the Critical zone of chromitite, pyroxenite, norite, and anorthosite,
which includes the Merensky Reef and UG-2 chromitite as well as
numerous additional chromitites;
(3) the Main zone of norite and gabbronorite with minor anorthosite and
pyroxenite
(4) the Upper zone of anorthosite, leucogabbro, and diorite, notable for
numerous magnetitite layers up to 6 m thick.
The whole of the sequence represents a simple progression of cumulus

minerals, but actual succession of layered units is complex.

Barnes et al 2017 Elements
70
71
❑ Exploration guide
Geology
Exploration methods
✓ First order target – mafic/ultramafic rocks
✓ Massive ores make good geophysical
✓ Regional scale targets, e.g.
• Continental Flood Basalt - Small differentiated intrusions that act • concentration of dense minerals,
as feeder systems in LICs
• contacts between conductive
• Komatiites minerals
• small to medium sized mafic/ultramafic sillls or flows
✓ Aeromagnetics for magnetite
• cluster along strike
• PGE – large mafic layered intrusions ✓ PGE – gravity and magnetics
✓ Sulphides – electromagnetics
✓ Local scale
• Gravitational settling, low in the sequence
• Ultramafic to mafic contact
• Decreases magma flow rate
• Low to high Ni or S concentrations
❑ Resource use
❖ PGE
❖ Cu
❖ Ni • Catalysts
• Jewellery • Electrical industry
• Ni alloys (anticorrosive)
• Dentistry • Chemical industry – pest
• Steel
control
• Gas turbines • Electronics
• Engineering
• Catalysts • Chemical instruments
• Metallurgy – brass
• Rechargeable Ni-Cd batteries
❖ Cr • Coins
• Magnets
• Fe-Ni and Cu-Cr alloys • Telecommunications
• Coins
• Recycling 45% in the EU • Ferrochrome • Recycling contributes 30%
• Colour pigments
• Foundary sand
• Tanning leather and textiles
• Refractory industry
❖Deposits associated with primitive magma:
2- Deposits associated with primitive magma:

o Stratabound sulfide disseminations known as “contact-type»
❑ Iron apatite kiruna type deposits (IOA)
several large deposits of particularly high-quality iron ore consisting almost

exclusively of magnetite and some fluorapatite.
Other Kiruna-type deposits in Scandinavia are Malmberget, near Gällivare
(northern Sweden) and Grägesberg (southern Sweden). Worldwide
examples are Avnik (Turkey), Bafq (Iran), Yangtze River (lower reaches)
(China), Coast Range (northern Chile), and Missouri (USA).
➢ The way how these massive magnetite–apatite ore bodies have been
formed is still controversial.
2 theories:
(1) unusual phosphorus-rich iron oxide magma (Frietsch and Perdahl
1995; Harlov et al. 2002; Naslund et al. 2002; Hou et al. 2011).
(2) formed by hydrothermal solutions (Sillitoe and Burrows 2002; Jami et
al. 2007, 2009)

(1) during the crystallization of a diorite pluton the remaining melt reached a composition where liquid immiscibility led
to the segregation of a phosphorus-rich iron oxide melt. Iron and titanium are strongly enriched in the melt during the
fractional crystallization of tholeiitic basalts; It is only later that magnetite starts to be crystallized. The tholeiitic trend
assumes low oxygen fugacity, which delays the oxidation of iron and thus the crystallization of magnetite.
Unmixing of an iron oxide melt occurs when the concentration of elements such as phosphorus is increased at the same
time. This melt was finally squeezed upward, partly flowed out as a lava flow at a volcano, partly got stuck at shallow
depth, and solidified.
Introduction
❖ Magmatic Ore Deposits Ovalle 2018

(2) However, iron oxide lava flow at El Laco (Chile) contains tuff
inclusions some with a diameter of several meters. This rather
suggests that a hydrothermal solution reacted with the tuff and
partly replaced it with magnetite.
Process could also apply to other Kiruna-type deposits, although

it is conceivable that segregation of an iron oxide melt was an
intermediate step in the generation of an iron-rich hydrothermal
fluid.
IOCG contain less iron than Kiruna-type and instead have

increased contents of copper sulfides, gold, uranium, and REEs.
Some researchers believe that both deposits are iron-rich or
copper-rich endmembers of a continuum. IOCG deposits have
been formed by hydrothermal solutions that are known in some
cases to also originate from diorite magmas.
field observations and magnetite geochemical data from surface or near surface
samples (e.g., Magnetite-Z and Magnetite-S) reflect a hydrothermal origin, magnetite
Introduction
❖ Magmatic Ore Deposits Weis MSc thesis 2013
Introduction
❑ Pegmatites
3- Deposits formed through extreme fractionation of

primitive magma: REE Pegmatite
4- Deposits formed from small-fraction partial melts

Carbonatite & Alkaline intrusions (LREE) ores

mineral from depth in the Earth into magma
❑ Pegmatites
Granites and similar plutonic rocks (a.k.a. granites in the

broader sense) can be formed by fractional crystallization
from a basaltic magma or normally by partial melting in the
Earth’ crust.
Water plays an important role in melt generation as it

significantly lowers the melting point (or solidus). In water-
saturated crustal rocks less than 700oC is sufficient to start
melting. Small concentrations of phosphorus, fluorine, and
boron lower the melting point even further.
Last melt residues of an almost solidified granite pluton are

highly enriched in water and incompatible elements. They
can solidify into a comparatively small rock body with
unusually large crystals called a pegmatite.
❑ Pegmatites
Although crystals several centimeters or decimeters in size are
the rule, even crystals several meters in size are not
uncommon. A single potassium feldspar in a pegmatite in
Colorado (USA) is said to have been 50 m long, 14 m wide, and
36 m high.
Most pegmatites have more or less the same composition as

granite and consist mainly of quartz, feldspar, and mica.
However, incompatible elements are often so highly enriched
that exotic minerals are formed.
Pegmatites are important deposits of niobium and tantalum

(coltan), REEs, beryllium, lithium, and other metals and
provide large quantities of gemstones and industrial minerals
such as feldspar, quartz, and mica.
➢ Thus, pegmatites can be classified according to economic criteria such as gem-bearing, REE, and lithium pegmatites.
❑ Pegmatites
Which elements are enriched in a pegmatite mainly depends on the

composition of the parent rock, where the magma was generated, and thus
indirectly the tectonic setting .
The two pegmatite families that are distinguished based on different

enrichment trends are:
(1) lithium–cesium–tantalum (LCT) pegmatites form in compressional

settings, at subduction zones, or in the thickened crust of high mountains
ranges formed by the collision of two continents (in connection with S-
type and I-type granites).
(2) niobium–yttrium–fluorine (NYF) pegmatites, includes REE pegmatites.

form in extensional settings, in a continental rift, or during post-orogenic
collapse (in connection with A-type granites).
Abyssal pegmatites are different
because they are not formed as the
residual melt of a granite but in situ by a
low degree of melting
❑ Pegmatites
Depth also has an effect on mineral content.

Rare elements are particularly enriched in shallow
miarolitic pegmatites and in rare element pegmatites
formed at medium depth.
At low pressure water vapor may be released forming

miarolitic cavities in the form of gas bubbles within the
pegmatite that are often lined with large crystals.
Water separation can lead not only to loss of certain

elements from the system, but above all to faster
solidification of the remaining melt.
Miarolitic pegmatites otherwise largely resemble the
respective rare-element pegmatites of both families.
What is the use of niobium , tantalum, REEs, beryllium, lithium, cesium fluorine?
What is coltan?
85
❑ Carbonatites and Alkaline rocks



Partial fusion of enriched mantle by a very low

degree of partial melting generates alkali-rich
silica-undersaturated magmas such as alkali
basalt, nephelinite.
Depending on the nature of mantle enrichment,

the depth of melting, and amount of CO2 present
at the time other alkaline magmas can form.
Strongly alkaline magmas are particularly

common in rift systems and on hotspots within
Archean cratons where the lithosphere is
particularly thick thus affecting the depth of melt
generation.

Alkaline magmas can in turn develop into a multitude of different rocks:
Fractional crystallization typically leads to a composition of phonolite (or nepheline syenite)
Exotic minerals can crystallize early in alkaline magmas resulting in fractionation leading in a different direction.
Water released by the magma plays an important role because large quantities of alkalis (together with chlorine, fluorine,
and other elements) can disappear from the magma. This water can in turn react with older igneous rocks and transform
them into completely different rocks.
Finally, the separation of immiscible carbonatite melt can also occur. If they have a very high CO2 content, then a carbonate
melt (carbonatite) may be segregated.
Accordingly, there is a whole catalog of different alkaline rocks. What they have in common is that they contain (1) minerals
low in silica such as olivine, feldspathoids (nepheline, sodalite, leucite) or melilite, and (2) Minerals rich in alkalis such as
aegirine (alkali pyroxene) or arfvedsonite (alkali amphibole).
➢ Only a fraction of these rocks are economically interesting such as carbonatites and agpaitic nepheline syenites.

Carbonatites are exotic igneous carbonate rocks.
Although they are not rare with more than 500 known
occurrences, they have only relatively small volumes.
Small intrusions (stocks), sills and dikes, and sometimes tuffs or

lava flows.
They mostly occur together with alkaline rocks. Almost all

carbonatites are found in continental rift systems.
Carbonatite is defined as igneous rock consisting of more than 50% carbonate minerals: calcite (calcite carbonatite:
coarse-grained, sovite; fie-grained, alvikite) or dolomite (dolomite carbonatite) typically dominates.

They are of particular interest because high content of REEs and niobium. In addition, phosphates such as apatite or
fluorapatite (especially, for fertilizer production) and the swellable clay mineral vermiculite are extracted.
elevated concentration of strontium (>700 ppm), barium (>250

ppm) and vanadium (>20 ppm)
Siilinjärvi carbonatite is mined as a source of phosphate (green fluor-apatite)
❑ Carbonatites and Alkaline rocks An unusual carbonatite is the Phalaborwa copper deposit
Phalaborwa in South Africa is a carbonatite deposit that is

particularly important economically.
It is part of a tubular ring complex consisting of several
intrusions. Each magma pulse was injected into the center of
older ones creating a structure similar to onion rings.
Although there are syenites, (i.e., ultramafic cumulates). the

largest part of the complex consists of different pyroxenites
The central part contains two different carbonatite
intrusions. The carbonatites consist mainly of calcite
together with magnetite, dolomite, apatite
Subsequently, a large amount of Cu sulfide precipitated from

magmatic–hydrothermal solutions within the Carbonatite is
extracted from South Africa’ largest open-pit mine.
Foskorite are mainly mined for apatite the by-products of which are magnetite, zirconium, gold, silver, and PGEs.

world’ largest known deposit of REEs is Bayan Obo (Inner
Mongolia).
More than 100 Mt of REE2O3 are held in this deposit together

with 600 Mt of iron oxide and significant amounts of
niobium.
Most important ore minerals are monazite (REE phosphate),

bastnäite (REE fluorocarbonate), and magnetite.
The deposit consists of two large zones and several small

zones in which REEs are highly enriched (1–2% REE2O3). They
are located in a so-called dolomite marble interpreted by
some researchers as a dolomite carbonatite sill rather than a
former sediment transformed by metamorphism.
Whole deposit is located within similarly old sediments (sandstone, slate) that had been deposited in a continental rift.
Yang et al. 2019
(A)Proposed model for genesis of carbonatite in

the Mesoproterozoic Bayan Obo rift (China) at
ca. 1.3 Ga.
(B) Differentiation pattern of carbonatite from

Ferro to magnesian due to immiscibility of
carbonatite and iron magma in the chamber,
and from magnesian to calcic resulting from
fenitization between the magnesiocarbonatite
pluton and wall rocks.
98
❑ Carbonatites and Alkaline rocks: Rare earth element uses
▪ Alloying light and base metals

▪ Coloring glass Global production
▪ Nuclear technology • China 100,000 tons
▪ La - source of radiation • USA 3,200 tons
▪ Eu & Y cathode-ray tubes e.g. TV • India 2,300 tons
▪ Ceramics & glazes • Malaysia 320 tons
▪ Catalysts • China = 94%
▪ High-tech touch screens
▪ Green-tech
❑ KImberlites



❑ KImberlites
Intrusive igneous rock that contains diamond in its

rock matrix. It has a porphyritic texture, with large,
often rounded crystals (phenocrysts) surrounded
by a fine-grained matrix (groundmass).
It is a mica peridotite, and its most abundant

mineral constituent is olivine.
Kimberlite, along with a similar rock called

lamproite, is important for delivering diamonds to
the crust through magmatic intrusions that solidify
into pipelike structures.
❑ KImberlites
Kimberlite is a special type of ultramafic magma

that is charged with volatile components such as
water and CO2.
magma rich in potassium and incompatible trace

elements and is probably produced by low-degree
partial melting of a volatile-rich, geochemically
enriched source deep in the mantle.
Kimberlites and lamproites are emplaced during highly explosive volcanic eruptions and form small, circular, funnel-shaped
craters called maars. Most kimberlites are restricted to continents, and diamond deposits occur preferentially near or at the
margins of stable Archean cratons.
❑ KImberlites
Most kimberlites are restricted to continents,
and diamond deposits occur preferentially
near or at the margins of stable Archean
cratons.
Diamondiferous kimberlites are usually young

compared to the age of the lithosphere in
which they have intruded. Many are
Cretaceous, many others are Paleozoic (as in
the Sakha Republic, Siberia), but the whole
array extends from the Proterozoic to the
Neogene (such as some 22 Ma examples in
Western Australia).
Several decades ago almost all diamond mines were located in southern Africa but many large and important deposits have
recently been found in Russia, Australia, and Canada. The small African country Botswana is now the world’ second largest
diamond producer (after Russia, measured by the values of the gems), followed by Canada
❑ KImberlites
Strictly speaking diamonds in kimberlites are not truly magmatic. They are
thought to be xenocrysts that were plucked from the sub-continental
lithospheric mantle as the kimberlite magma ascended from its deep source
to the surface.
Diamond is the stable form of carbon at the pressures and temperatures that
reign in the lower part the lithosphere. Given that carbon is relatively
abundant in mantle rocks, it is probable that this part of the mantle is a vast
reservoir of the gemstone. Kimberlite magma is merely a vehicle that
transports the diamonds rapidly to the surface
Figure 19.19. Model of an idealized kimberlite system, illustrating the hypabyssal

dike-sill complex leading to a diatreme and tuff ring explosive crater. This model is
not to scale, as the diatreme portion is expanded to illustrate it better. From Mitchell
(1986) Kimberlites: Mineralogy, Geochemistry, and Petrology. Plenum. New York.
Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
❑ KImberlites
Figure 19.21. Hypothetical cross section of an Archean craton with an extinct ancient mobile belt (once associated with subduction) and a
young rift. The low cratonal geotherm causes the graphite-diamond transition to rise in the central portion. Lithospheric diamonds
therefore occur only in the peridotites and eclogites of the deep cratonal root, where they are then incorporated by rising magmas
(mostly kimberlitic- “K”). Lithospheric orangeites (“O”) and some lamproites (“L”) may also scavenge diamonds. Melilitites (“M”) are
generated by more extensive partial melting of the asthenosphere. Depending on the depth of segregation they may contain diamonds.
Nephelinites (“N”) and associated carbonatites develop from extensive partial melting at shallow depths in rift areas.
❑ KImberlites
For further reading

December 2019 - Volume 15, Number 6
How do we explore for diamonds?

Magmatic Ore-Forming Processes - Additional Lecture

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Magmatic ore Deposits

1- igneous ore-forming processes 3- Deposits formed through extreme fractionation of

Crystallization of basic magmas can be

This can lead to the formation of economic

➢ The question is how these

❑ Classification of igneous rocks

Plutonic/intrusive) rocks formed at depth that cooled

Volcanic rocks often contain isolated larger crystals

For each volcanic rock there is a corresponding plutonic

Parts of plutons, in particular, can be strongly enriched

❑ Classification of igneous rocks

A more detailed classiﬁcation can be based on mineral content.

❑ Classification of igneous rocks

Basaltic magma is a melt formed in the Earth’

Gabbro consists mainly of plagioclase with some

Further fractionation leads in the direction of

❑ Classification of igneous rocks

Only so-called ultramaﬁc rocks where maﬁc minerals

Granites are often additionally

I-type granites can be produced either by

Granites are often additionally

S-type granites derive from sediments that

Granites are often additionally

A-type granites (anorogenic) are formed in

❑ Classification of igneous rocks

❑ Magmas and metallogeny

It is well known that different igneous rocks host ore deposits

It is widely recognized, for example, that many of the

❑ Magmas and metallogeny

Sections of deformed and metamorphosed oceanic lithosphere

❑ Magmas and metallogeny

Upper crust made up of felsic to intermediate compositions

Lower crust is variable in composition but is typically made

❑ Why are some magmas more fertile than others?

➢ why certain portions of the

❑ Why are some magmas more fertile than others?

❑ Partial melting and Fractional crystallisation as ore-forming processes

❑ Partial melting and Fractional crystallization as ore-forming pr.

Instead of melting completely at a certain temperature (melting

Solidus is the temperature at which the ﬁst melt is generated

Liquidus is the temperature at which the last crystals disappear

o Mantle (from ~10-50 to ~2900 km) that

❑ Partial melting and Fractional crystallization as ore-forming pr.

• under mid-ocean ridges and so-called hotspots where hot

• subduction zones where magmas have an increased H20

Composition of the first batch of melt corresponds to the eutectic

Eutectic phase diagram describes behavior of the alloys, 2 or more

❑ Partial melting and Fractional crystallization as ore-forming processes

Composition of the first batch of melt corresponds to the eutectic

Eutectic phase diagram describes behavior of the alloys, 2 or more

❑ Partial melting and Fractional crystallisation as ore-forming processes

➢ Such fractionation is not restricted to the major elements.

Incompatible elements are enriched in the melt during partial

Whether an element can be integrated into the crystal lattice of

Magmatic deposits rich in compatible elements are associated

❑ Partial melting and Fractional crystallisation as ore-forming processes

When basaltic magma can rise relatively undisturbed there is

❑ Partial melting and Fractional crystallisation as ore-forming

❑ Partial melting and Fractional crystallisation as ore-forming

❑ Partial melting and Fractional crystallisation as ore-forming

❑ Liquid immiscibility as an ore-forming process

When magma of a certain composition encounters the so-called

The mixing of two magmas that have compositions on both sides of