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Group II IX- Archimedes

• There are several kinds of events caused from volcanic
action that can be harmful to life and property. These
include lava flows, lahars, ash falls, debris avalanches, and
pyroclastic density currents
• Earthquakes related to volcanic activity may produce hazards
which include ground cracks, ground deformation, and damage
to manmade structures. There are two general categories of
earthquakes that can occur at a volcano: volcano-tectonic
earthquakes and long period earthquakes.
• Earthquakes produced by stress changes in solid rock due to the
injection or withdrawal of magma (molten rock) are called
volcano-tectonic earthquakes .These earthquakes can cause
land to subside and can produce large ground cracks. These
earthquakes can occur as rock is moving to fill in spaces where
magma is no longer present. Volcano-tectonic earthquakes don't
indicate that the volcano will be erupting but can occur at
anytime.
• In a typical volcanic eruption, an eruption column consisting of
pyroclastic material is ejected into the atmosphere. The base of this
column is known as the gas thrust zone where material is shot
ballistically from the volcanic vent. Above this zone is the convective
thrust zone. This zone is where heat buoys pyroclastic material
upward toward the top of the troposphere. Once the eruption column
reaches the stratosphere, shearing occurs and the material is spread
out in an umbrella shape (Francis, 1993).

• The May 18, 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens did not initially
produce such an eruption column. Instead, the initial eruption was a
directed blast. This blast was a result of depressurization triggered
by an earthquake initiated landslide on the north flank of the
volcano. The area affected by the directed blast extended greater
than 19 miles from the volcano..
• When a volcano erupts it will sometimes eject material such as
rock fragments into the atmosphere. This material is known as
tephra. The largest pieces of tephra (greater than 64 mm) are
called blocks and bombs. Blocks and bombs are normally shot
ballistically from the volcano. Because these fragments are so
large they fall out near their source. Blocks and bombs as large
as 8-30 tons have fallen as far away as 1 km from their source.
• Small blocks and bombs have been known to travel as far away
as 20-80 km. Most particles greater than a millimeter in size will
fall out within 30 minutes of the time they are erupted. The
smallest particles which are less then .01 mm can stay in the
atmosphere for two or three years after a volcanic eruption.
Sometimes these particles produce fantastic sunsets such as was
seen after the eruptions of Krakatau in 1883 and Pinatubo in
1991. Some scientists believe that these particles may contribute
to global warming.
• The size of particles that fall out is largest near the volcano and gets
progressively smaller further from the volcano. The thickness of material
usually decreases the further away from the volcano. Occasionally, as
occurred in Ritzville, Washington when Mount St. Helens erupted in 1980,
secondary thickening will occur. Secondary thickening means that ash
deposits are thicker in a particular area than in surrounding areas. This
results when ash particles and water form clumps which produce larger
particles that have higher terminal velocities and so fall out of the ash cloud.
When these particles hit the ground they break apart and produce a thicker
deposit of ash than in surrounding areas
• An erupting volcano will release gases, tephra, and heat into
the atmosphere. The largest portion of gases released into the
atmosphere is water vapor. Other gases include carbon dioxide
(CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydrogen
fluoride (HF), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), carbon monoxide (CO),
hydrogen gas (H2), NH3, methane (CH4), and SiF4. Some of
these gases are transported away from the eruption on ash
particles while others form salts and aerosols. Volcanic gases
are also produced when water is heated by magma. Gases
also escape from pyroclastic flows, lahars, and lava flows, and
may also be produced from burning vegetation.
• Lava flows are the least hazardous of all processes in volcanic
eruptions. How far a lava flow travels depends on the flows
temperature, silica content, extrusion rate, and slope of the land. A
cold lava flow will not travel far and neither will one that has a
high silica content. Such a flow would have a high viscosity (a high
resistance to flow). A basalt flow like those in Hawai'i have low
silica contents and low viscosities so they can flow long distances.
Such a flow can move as far away as 4 km from its source and
have a thickness of 10 m.These flows can move at rates of several
kilometers per hour. More silica-rich flows can move as far away
as 1.3 km from their sources and have thicknesses of 100 m.These
flows can move at rates of a few to hundreds of meters per hour.
If a lava flow is channelized or travels underground in a lava tube
then the distance it travels is greatly extended.
• A debris avalanche is formed when an unstable slope collapses
and debris is transported away from the slope. Large scale
avalanches normally occur on very steep volcanoes. There are
two general types of debris avalanches: those that are "cold"
and those that are "hot".
• Landslide is a general term for mass movement. It implies a
gradual movement rather than the more sudden movement of
an avalanche. The perfect example of possible large scale
landslides currently taking place is on the south side of the
island of Hawai'i.
• Tsunamis are large sea waves that have long wave periods.
When these waves reach coastal areas, they can go far inland.
If such a wave were produced by the collapse of a large
portion of the south side of the island of Hawai'i then it would
put people in danger who were living on the coast of Hawai'i
and surrounding islands. It could even travel across the Pacific to
coastal areas thousands of miles away. Tsunamis aren't always
produced by collapsing land masses. They can also be
produced by volcanic earthquakes and explosions, atmospheric
shock waves due to rapidly moving volcanic material, and
lahars or pyroclastic flows that have entered the sea
• Pyroclastic flows are fluidized masses of rock fragments and
gases that move rapidly in response to gravity. Pyroclastic flows
can form in several different ways. They can form when an
eruption column collapses, or as the result of gravitational
collapse or explosion on a lava dome or lava flow. These flows
are more dense than pyroclastic surges and can contain as much
as 80 % unconsolidated material. The flow is fluidized because
it contains water and gas from the eruption, water vapour from
melted snow and ice, and air from the flow overriding air as it
moves downslope.
• One of the greatest volcanic hazards is lahars. Lahars are similar to
pyroclastic flows but contain more water. Lahars form 1) from debris
avalanches that contain water from snow and ice which, when
released, mixes with loose debris to form a lahar, 2) from pyroclastic
flows and surges which release water that mixes with debris, 3) from
pyroclastic flows which dilute themselves with river water as they
travel downslope, 4) from natural dam failure from rainfall on loose
material such as ash. Lahars that contain 20 to 60% sediment are
usually very turbulent. Lahars that contain greater than 80% sediment
usually flow more smoothly (laminar flow). These smooth flowing
lahars usually travel much faster than their turbulent counterparts and
can float boulders, cars, buildings, and bridges.