Taksonomi Tumbuhan

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 Introduction
 Taxonomy is the science of
classifying and identifying plants.
 Scientific names are necessary
because the same common name is
used for different plants in different
areas of the world.
 Latin is the language used for
scientific classification.

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 Karl von Linne (1707-1778)
 Swedish botanist
 Developed binomial
classification scheme for
plants.
 Uses two Latin words to
indicate the genus and the
species.
 Changed his name to the
Latin name of Carolus
Linnaeus.
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 Scientific Names
 The first word is the genus and the
second word is the species.
 If there are additional words, they
indicate the variety or cultivar.

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Scientific Classification
Kingdom

Phylum/Division

Class

Order

Suborder

Family

Genus

Species

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 Names and Terms
 Division:
The major category is called a division and
is equivalent to Phylum in the animal
kingdom
Division names endings indicate plants (-
phyta) and fungi (-mycota)
 Class  Monocotyledoneae &
Dicotyledoneae
 Order  (-ales)
 Family  (-aceae)
 Genus & Species

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 Family
Biologists classify living organisms by their
relatedness. The basic categories are:

Kingdom
Division (Phylum for animals)
Class
Order
Increasing degree Family
of specificity – Genus
towards a single, Species
definable, named
species.

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 An example of phylogentic classification
(Joran Viers-Basic Botany)
 Kingdom=Plantae; Organisms that usually have rigid cell
walls and usually possess chlorophyll.
 Subkingdom=Embryophyta; Plants forming embryos.
 Phylum=Tracheophyta; Vascular plants.
 Subphylum=Pterophytina; Generally large, conspicuous
leaves, complex vascular system.
 Class=Angiospermae; Flowering plants, seed enclosed in
ovary.
 Subclass=Dicotyledoneae; Embryo with two seed leaves.
 Order=Sapindales; Soapberry order consisting of a
number of trees and shrubs.
 Family=Aceraceae; Maple family.
 Genus=Acer; Maples and box elder.
 Species=Acer rubrum; Red maple.

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 Divisions
 Thefour most important divisions of
the plant kingdom are….
– Thallophyta  Algae dan Fungi
– Bryophyta
– Pteridophyta
– Spermatophyta

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 Spermatophyta
 Includes flowering or seed-bearing
plants.
 The two subdivisions are….
– Gymnosperms
– Angiosperms

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 salah satu cabang ilmu botani yang
mempelajari pengelompokan tumbuhan.

 Kata Taksonomi berasal dari Bahasa

Yunani yaitu taxis yang berarti susunan
dan penataan dan nomos yang berarti
hukum atau aturan.

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Lawrence (1969) mendefinisikannya
sebagai studi yang meliputi identifikasi,
tatanama (nomenclature) dan
klasifikasi dari suatu obyek

Ilmu taksonomi modern : mencakup

studi tentang hubungan kekerabatan
antar spesies (filogenetik) maupun
proses-proses evolusi yang terkait
(misalnya hibridisasi, variasi dalam
populasi dan asal muasal suatu jenis).
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Ada 4 komponen dasar dalam Taksonomi :
1. Klasifikasi: penyusunan kelompok-kelompok
tumbuhan ke dalam suatu tingkatan taksonomi
berdasarkan sifat-sifat tertentu.
2. Identifikasi, yaitu determinasi suatu nama untuk suatu
spesies.
3. Deskripsi, adalah penjabaran karakter-karakter atau ciri-
ciri suatu spesies. Biasanya digunakan untuk
membedakan antara suatu spesies dengan spesies
lainnya
4. Tatanama (Nomenclature), suatu sistem aturan yang
jelas dan bersifat universal yang digunakan oleh semua
ahli botani di dunia untuk menamakan tumbuhan yang
tertuang dalam Kode Internasional untuk Tatanama
Tumbuhan (International Code of Botanical
Nomenclature, ICBN).
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 Sistem klasifikasi dalam taksonomi tumbuhan:
sistem klasifikasi alam atau sistem klasifikasi filogenetik dan
sistem klasifikasi buatan (berdasarkan habitat)

Sistem klasifikasi yang tinjauannya didasarkan modifikasi

dari sistem yang telah ada dengan penambahan data yang
baru, disebut sistem kontemporer.

*Identifikasi tumbuhan adalah menentukan namanya yang

benar dan tempatnya yang tepat dalam sistem klasifikasi

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Classification - 5 kingdoms (Whittaker, 1969)
Prokaryotae or Monera
Protista
Fungi
Plantae
Animaliae

Classification - 3 kingdoms or domains (Woese, 1978)

Eubacteria - true bacteria
Archaebacteria - ancient bacteria
Eukaryotes - protists, fungi, plants, animals

Viruses????

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Prokaryotes come in a variety of
shapes
 Cocci – spherical
come in clusters
(staphylococci) or
chains (
streptococci)
 Bacilli – rod shaped

 Curved or spiral
shaped (syphillus,
a spirochete is an
example)
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Archaea thrive in extreme
environments
 Can survive in very
salty places. Salt
water 3%, thrive at
15-20%
 Live in water above
100 degrees C
 Live in acid pools

 Live in anaerobic
environments

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Structural adaptations
 Bacteria and archaea have
flagella to move about
 Pili help stick to surfaces
 Bacteria can form an
endospore to survive harsh
conditions (anthrax and
botulism)
 Filaments on
actinomycetes allow
organism to bridge dry
gaps between soil particles

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 Bacteria
Bacteria have been on the
Earth for millions of
years. It wasn't until the
late 1600s that scientists
discovered bacteria. In
fact, bacteria were
discovered by accident.
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 Anton van Leeuwenhoek
accidentally noticed them
while looking at scrapings
from his teeth through a
very simple microscope. He
did not know what they
were, but he was essentially
the first person to see
bacteria.

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 Bacteria are very small – smaller
than most animal cells
 They can be rod shaped,
 spherical
 or spiral

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These bacteria are all around us in
the environment

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Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology - 2nd ed
Vol. 1 Archae & Deeply Branching &
Phototrophic Bacteria
Vol. 2 Proteobacteria
Vol. 3 The Low G+C Gram-positive Bacteria
Vol. 4 The High G+C Gram-positive Bacteria
Vol. 5 The Planctomycetes, Spirochaetes,
Fibrobacteria Bacteroidetes & Fusobacteria

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Archae - archaebacteria
Diverse morphologically
rods, cocci, spirilli, pleomorphic
Gram- positive or Gram-negative
Diverse metabolically
aerobes, facultative anaerobes, strict anaerobes
inorganic to organic electron sources
psychrophiles, mesophiles, thermophiles
ether-linked lipids
some produce methane
most thermophiles
Cell wall
Molecular - some characteristics like bacteria
some characteristics like eukaryotes
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Prokaryotic cell
Shapes: rod (bacillus, bacilli)
sphere (coccus, cocci)
spiral (spirillum, spirilli)
pleomorphic
Cell arrangement: single cell
pairs (diplococcus)
chains
clusters

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Prokaryotic cell structure

Capsule - external carbohydrate (protection, adhesion)

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Prokaryotic cell structure
Capsule
Flagellum -(motility; antigenic)

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Prokaryotic cell structure
Capsule
Flagellum
Fimbria (fimbriae) &: Pilus (pili) - tubules (attachment;
DNA transfer)
Cell wall - mucopeptide (rigidity; protection)
Gram-positive & Gram-negative
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
Cell membrane - (permeability, transport)
osmosis & osmotic pressure
Cytoplasm

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Prokaryotic cell structure
Capsule
Flagellum
Fimbria (fimbriae) & Pilus (pili)
Cell wall
Cell membrane
Cytoplasm
Endospore - hardy, resistant structure (survival)

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 Prokaryotic Cells
 Simplest organisms
– Cytoplasm is surrounded by plasma
membrane and encased in a rigid cell wall
composed of peptidoglycan.
no distinct interior compartments

–gram-positive – thick single layer wall

that retains a violet dye from Gram stain
procedure
–gram-negative – multilayered wall does
not retain dye
Susceptibility of bacteria to antibiotics
depends on cell wall structure.
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SPIROCHETES
helical rods with axial filament
motile
habitat: mud to intestinal tract
metabolism: chemoheterotrophs
aerobic to anaerobic
saprophytes to obligate parasites
Treponema pallidum - syphillis
T. partenue - yaws
Borellia burgdorferi - Lyme disease
Leptospira - leptospirosis

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HELICAL or VIBROID Gram-negative Bacteria
helical to comma shaped rods

Campylobacter fetus - spontaneous abortion

C. jejuni - food-borne intestinal disease
Helicobacter pylori - ulcers

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ANAEROBIC GRAM-NEGATIVE STRAIGHT,
CURVED AND HELICAL RODS

Bacteroides - peritonitis

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GRAM-NEGATIVE AEROBIC RODS AND COCCI
Pseudomonadaceae
Azotobacteriaceae
Rhizobiaceae
Legionellaceae
Neisseriaceae
Unknown affiliation: Brucella, Bordatella, Francisella

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FACULTATIVELY ANAEROBIC GRAM-NEGATIVE
RODS

Enterobacteriaceae Escherichia Serratia

Salmonella Proteus
Shigella Yersinia
Klebsiella

Vibrionaceae Vibrio

Pasteurellaceae Pasteurella
Hemophilus
Uncertain affiliation Gardnerella

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RICKETTSIALES AND CHLAMYDIALES
Gram-negative
Obligate intracellular parasites

Rickettsia insect vector

Chlamydia sexually transmitted

MYCOPLASMA no rigid wall - soft skin

triple layered membrane
pleomorphic
Mycoplasma

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GRAM-POSITIVE COCCI
Micrococcaceae
Aerobic to facultatively anaerobic
Single cell to irregular clusters
Staphylococcus
Streptococcaceae
Anaerobic
Pairs to chains
“Lactic acid bacteria”
Streptococcus

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ENDOSPORE -FORMING GRAM-POSITIVE RODS &
COCCI
Large rod shaped cells
Grow in chains
Produce hardy, resistant endospore
Bacillus - aerobic
Clostridium - anaerobic

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REGULAR NON-SPORING GRAM-POSITIVE RODS
Lactobacillus
Listeria

IRREGULAR NON-SPORING GRAM-POSITIVE RODS

cells pleomorphic: club-shaped, spindle-shaped,
dumbells
Corynebacterium
Actinomyces

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MYCOBACTERIA
Rod-shaped cells
Aerobic
Non-motile
Waxy coat; don’t stain readily
Acid-fast
Mycobacterium
M. tuberculosis
M. leprae

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Some bacteria cause disease
 Exotoxins – poisons
secreted by bacteria
(staphylococcus aureaus
can cause toxic shock
syndrome, also toxic
strains of e. coli)
 Endotoxins – poisonous
glycolipid components of
the cell wall of some
bacteria. (salmonella –
food poisoning or typhoid
fever
 Sanitation, antibiotics and
education have stopped
much fatality (e.g. Lyme
disease)

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 Most bacteria is not harmful
 In fact, many are extremely
beneficial.
 They…..
 flavor cheese and make yogurt
 help us digest food
 Treat sewage
 Decompose dead plants and animals
 Help create healthy soil for growing crops

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Prokaryotes help recycle chemicals
and clean up the environment
 Cyanobacteria can convert
nitrogen gas to nitrogen
compounds plants can use
 Live on the roots of
legumes and contribute
nitrogen to the soil
 Breakdown of organic
wastes and dead
organisms to chemicals
other organisms can use
 Decompose organic matter
in sewage sludge to
material that can be used
as landfill or fertilizer
 “oil-eating” bacteria
 Accumulate metals from
mine waters

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Rhizobium are symbiotic bacteria in root nodules

Rhizobium fix
nitrogen ( N2)
into ammonium

Rhizobium and
plants are
species specific

Legumes are crops

with
Root nodules –
Clover, peas, alfalfa KRT-2010 47
Figure 37.10x Nodules

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 Viruses
 Viruses are the tiniest of the
microorganisms

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 Viruses
 cannot reproduce without taking over
a host cell
 There is still discussion as to whether
they are really living things
 Some are helpful to us, others cause
disease

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 Prokaryotic Cells
 Some use flagellum for locomotion
– threadlike structures protruding from
cell surface Bacterial cell wall

Rotary
motor

Flagellin Sheath

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 Eukaryotic cell structure
 Cell membrane or Plasma membrane
 Cytoplasm
Organelles - organized membranous
components:
Endoplasmic reticulum
(smooth, rough)
Golgi complex
Lysosomes (not in plant cells)
Mitochondrion (mitochondria)
Plastids (chloroplast)
Nucleus:
Chromosomes
Nucleolus

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 Eukaryotic Cells
 Characterized
by
compartmentalization by an
endomembrane system, and the
presence of membrane-bound
organelles.
– Central vacuole – plants, storage
– Vesicles (smaller)
– Chromosomes - DNA and protein
– Cytoskeleton (internal protein scaffolding)
– Cell walls – plants and fungi
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All life on earth depends on plants. Without
plants ecosystems would soon grind to a halt.

Animals (and fungi) are parasitic on plants.

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 Basics
Plants (like animals and fungi) are eukaryotes. Plants are
primitively photosynthetic, relying on organelles called
chloroplasts to capture light energy. (A few plants have lost this
ability and are parasitic on other plants). Most have highly
structured bodies, with green material growing upwards and roots
growing down. Their cell walls are reinforced with tough polymers,
notably cellulose and lignin.

All are capable of sexual reproduction, and their classification is

heavily based on studies of their reproductive organs. All exhibit a
phenomenon called alternation of generations, which you may well
be unaware of and which we will look at closely later in the lecture.

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 Taxonomy - definitions
Plants are widely taken to be the green things that make flowers

Kingdom Plantae – algae, mosses, ferns, conifers, flowering plants

In fact the boundaries are rather unclear, especially at the single-celled

level. Modern taxonomies do no try to shoehorn unicellular eukaryotes
into kingdoms alongside multicellular forms but prefer to handle them as
a distinct group (with 27 phyla at the last count). Within plants, the term
‘alga’ is not a monophyletic group, with red alga very different to brown
and green classes.

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 Taksonomi Tumbuhan Rendah (Cryptogamae)
(Tumbuhan yang berkembang biak dengan Spora)

Tahun 1880 diperkenalkan suatu sistem yang membagi

Cryptogamae menjadi Thallophyta, Bryophyta (berbagai
jenis Lumut), Pteridophyta (Tumbuhan Paku).
 Ciri :
- Sel telah berinti, tetapi belum berdeferensiasi (belum punya
berkas pengangkut)
- Sporangia dan gametangianya belum diselubungi oleh
dinding sel.

 Thallophyta (Tumbuhan Thallus): terdiri dari dua anak kelas

Algae dan Fungi dibedakan dari Bryophyta dan
Pteridophyta berdasarkan pada struktur alat penghasil
spora dan gamet serta perkembangan zigotnya.
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 Algae
An Overview

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 Algae
 Algaeare a type of protist that
usually live in water and can
produce their own food.

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Some algae can be large, others
are microscopic

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 Characteristics
 Range in size from microscopic to single
celled organisms to large seaweed
 Autotrophic

 Form the reproductive structures –

gametangia or gamete chambers
 Aquatic and have flagella at some point in
life
 Often contain pyrenoids, organelles that
synthesis and store starch

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 STRUCTURE
Thallus (haploid)
Four types of algae
–Unicellular
–Colonial
–Filamentous
–multicellular

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IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF ALGAE

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 CLASSIFICATION OF ALGAE
 SEVEN PHYLUM/DIVISION BASED ON:
– COLOR
– TYPE OF CHLOROPHYLL
– FOOD-STORAGE SUBSTANCE
– CELL WALL COMPOSITION
 PHYLUM/DIVISION:
1. CYANOPHYTA  MONERA
2. CHRYSOPHYTA  PROTISTA  Unicellular Eukaryote
3. PYRROPHYTA  PROTISTA  Unicellular Eukaryote
4. EUGLENOPHYTA
5. CHLOROPHYTA
6. PHAEOPHYTA
7. RHODOPHYTA

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 Algae can be
Red
Brown
Yellow
Or Green

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 Algae are important to
the ocean’s ecosystem
 They provide food for
 Fish
 Whales
 sea animals

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 Protozoans
 Protazoans are
microsopic organisms
that usually live in water

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 Movement
 Protozoans move
through their
environment in different
ways

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 Cilia
 Cilia are hair like
structures that wave
back an forth moving
the protozoan back and
forth

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 A 3-d
 Image of
 cilia

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 Flagela
 A tail like structure that
propels and can capture
prey

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 Psudopods
Little “ feet” that move
and pull the creature as it
moves

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 Microorganisms
Require food, air and a way to
dispose of waste
Are found everywhere

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 REPRODUCTION
MOST REPRODUCE BOTH
SEXUALLY AND ASEXUALLY
– Most sexual reproduction is
triggered by environmental
stress
– Asexual Reproduction
 Mitosis

– Sexual Reproduction
 Meiosis

 Zoospores

 Plusand minus gametes

 Zygospore

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Reproduction in Multicellular Algae
 Oedogonium
reproduction
– Antheridium-release
flagellated sperm that oogonium
swim to the oogonium
– Oogonium-houses the
zygote which is a diploid
spore
 The spore undergoes meiosis
and produces 4 haploid
zoospores. One of the four
cells becomes a rootlike
holdfast the others divide
and become a new filament.
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 holdfast

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Spirogyra reproduce sexually by
conjugation

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Ulva Reproduces by Alternation of
Generations
 Two distinct
multicellular
phases- one is
haploid and the
other is diploid
– Gametophyte is
haploid
– Sporophyte is
diploid

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Algae mempunyai bermacam-macam bentuk
tubuh:
Bentuk uniseluler: bentuk uniseluler yang
berflagela dan yang tidak berflagela.
Bentuk multiseluler

Reproduksi
Vegetatif: fragmentasi, pembelahan sel,
pembentukan hormogonia.
Aseksual: pembentukan mitospora, zoospora,
aplanospora, hipnospora, stadium pamela.
Seksual: isogami, heterogami yang terdiri dari
anisogami dan oogami, aplanogami, autogami.

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Protists – Unicellular eukaryotes
 More complicated than
any prokaryotes
 Membrane-enclosed
nucleus containing
multiple chromosomes
 Organelles
characteristic of
eukaryotes
 Eukaryotic flagella and
cilia
 Classified into 5
kingdoms or more

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Protozoa – Protists that ingest their
food
 Giardia – flagellate that
lives in the human
intestine and can cause
cramps and diarrhea
 Trypanosoma – live in the
blood stream of vertebrate
animals cause African
sleeping sickness
 Amoebas – large group
use pseudopodia to ingest
food
 Plasmodium – feeds on red
blood cells and causes
malaria
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Algae – photosynthetic protists
 Dinoflagellate blooms can cause
red tide
 Diatoms are unicellular and
very abundant in freshwater
and marine environments.
Important food source for
marine animals
 Green algae – cells resemble
biflagellated gametes of many
multicellular algae and some
plants, have cellulose cell walls,
use starch to store food and
have chloroplasts

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 Divisio :Chrysophyta
(Termasuk Protista)
Ciri-ciri :
- Bersifat uniselular, dinding sel terdiri atas pektin yang
lunak
- Selnya berinti, kromatofora mengandung klorofil a,
karotin, santofil dan suatu karotenoid yang menyerupai
fikosantin.
- Sebagian besar bersifat autotrof, kecuali yang tidak
berwarna : heterotrof.
- Tempat hidup : air laut dan air tawar (sering melekat
pada tumbuhan air).

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Phylum Euglenophyta
 1000 species of
Euglenoids
 Have both plantlike
and animal-like
characteristics
 Fresh water

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 Phylum Chlorophyta
 Green algae
 7000 diverse species

 Biologist reason that green algae

give rise to land plants.
 Both green algae and land plants
have chlorophyll a and B as well as
carotenoids and store food as starch
 Both have walls made of cellulose

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 Divisio: Chlorophyta
Ganggang Hijau
Ciri-ciri
1. Pigmen, khlorofil a dan b, serta karoten. Khlorofil terdapat dalam
jumlah yang banyak sehingga ganggang ini berwarna hijau
2. Hasil fotosintesis berupa amilum dan tersimpan dalam khloroplas.
3. Khloroplas berjumlah satu atau lebih; berbentuk mangkuk, bintang,
lensa, bulat, pita, spiral
4. Sel mempunyai 2 atau 4 flagela sama panjang.
5. Dinding sel mengandung selulose.
6. Perkembangbiakan: aseksual dengan Zoospora dan seksual
dengan anisogami
Tempat hidup
Sebagian besar ( ± 90%) merupakan algae air tawar terdapat pula di tanah
atau di dinding tembok yang lembab, di atas batang pohon dan dapat pula
sebagai epifil (pada permukaan daun).

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 Phylum Phaeophyta
 1500 species of Brown
algae
 Mostly marine and
include seaweed and kelp
 All are multicellular and
large (often reaching
lengths of 147 feet)
 Individual alga may grow
to a length of 100m with
a holdfast, stipe and
blade
 Used in cosmetics and
most ice creams
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 Divisio: Phaeophyta
Ganggang Coklat
Ciri-ciri
-Tubuh selalu berupa talus yang multiseluler yang
berbentuk filamen, lembaran atau menyerupai
semak/pohon yang dapat mencapai beberapa puluh
meter, terutama jenis-jenis yang hidup di lautan daerah
beriklim dingin.
- Bersel banyak dan berwarna pirang (fikosantin)
- Kromatofora mengandung klorofil a, karotin, xantofil,
dan fikosantin.

Tempat hidup
Sebagian besar hidup di laut hanya ada beberapa jenis
saja yang hidup di air tawar.
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 Phylum Rhodophyta
 4000 species of RED Algae
 Most are marine
 Smaller than brown algae and are
often found at a depth of 200 meters.
 Contain chlorophyll a and C as well as
phycobilins which are important in
absorbing light that can penetrate
deep into the water
 Have cells coated in carageenan
which is used in cosmetics, gelatin
capsules and some cheeses
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 Divisio: Rhodophyta
(Ganggang Merah)
Ciri-ciri
1. Sel mempunyai dinding yang terdiri dari selulose .
Rhodophyceae tidak pernah menghasilkan sel-sel
berflagela.
2. Pigmen Khlorofil: terdiri dari khlorofil a, karotenoid, fikoeritrin
dan fikosianin yang sering disebut pigmen aksesoris. -
karoten Pigmen-pigmen tersebut terdapat dalam kloroplas
3. Cadangan makanan berupa tepung floride (hasil polimerase
dari glukosa) dan terdapat diluar khloroplas.
4. Talus Hampir semuanya multiseluler, hanya 2 marga saja
yang uniseluler. Talus yang multiseluler berbentuk filamen
silinder ataupun helaian. Talus umumnya melekat pada
substrat dengan perantaraan alat pelekat.
5. Habitat : laut yang dalam
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 Other Phylum Representatives

Diatoms – used in detergents, Dinoflagellates – red tides

paint removers, toothpaste

Golden algae

Important in
the formation
of petroleum
products

KRT-2010 95
Seaweeds are a multicellular
marine algae
 Lack true stems,
leaves, roots and
internal tubes that
transport nutrients
and water in most
plants
 Brown algae, red
algae, and
multicellular green
algae may be
members of 3
separate kingdoms

KRT-2010 96
KRT-2010 97
 Fungi (jamur, cendawan)
Ciri-ciri:
 Tidak berklorofil : tidak berfotosintesis
 Tubuhnya mempunyai benang-benang hifa
 Perkembangbiakan : vegetatif : dengan
spora, generatif, dengan isogami,
anisogami, oogami, gametangiogami dan
somatogami
 Hidup secara heterotrof sebagai saprofit
atau parasit
 Jarang hidup di air, kebanyakan di
daratan.

KRT-2010 98
Funguslike Protist

Cellular Slime molds

KRT-2010 99
Cellular slime molds

 Have both
unicellular
and
multicellular
life stages

KRT-2010 100
Plasmodial Slime Molds

KRT-2010 101
Plasmodial slime molds
 Common everywhere
there is moist and
decaying matter
 Large and branching,
but not multicellular.
The weblike form
increases the surface
area to contact food
water and oxygen
 When food is is scarce
it addapts the
reproductive
structures at the
bottom

KRT-2010 102
Water Molds

KRT-2010 103
 THERE’S FUNGUS AMONG US

 Look into the eye.

 Look deep into the eye.

 There are no such things as molds.

– All molds are actually fungi.

KRT-2010 104
 That's a bunch of fungus.

 Thatis a bit surprising. We had

always heard about mold in the
shower or mold on the bread.

KRT-2010 105
 . Mold is actually a type of fungus.
 It has a shape called a zygote to be
exact. While yeasts are single celled
fungi, molds are multicellular fungi
 Bread takes one kind of fungus
(yeast) to make it rise.
 If you leave the bread out, another
type of fungus comes in (bread
mold) to break it down. It's not
amazing, but it's true.
KRT-2010 106
Let's look at Club Fungi
Mushrooms!

KRT-2010 107
 So what is a mushroom exactly?
It is bunches of strands living
underground called hyphae
(pronounced hi-fah). Those strands
are the basic fungus in action,
decomposing leaves, or rotting bark
on the ground.

KRT-2010 108
 When it's time to reproduce, they
develop a stalk and cap,the mushroom
that you see popping out of the ground.

KRT-2010 109
It'sonly one part of the
fungus. On the bottom of that
cap are a set of gills that
have little clubs with fungus
spores.

KRT-2010 110
 ZYGOTES

We already talked a little about mold.

That is only one example of the
Zygote Fungi.
These have hyphae-like mushrooms
but they reproduce in a different
way. When it's time to make more
fungi, they create a stalk and release
something called zygospores (thus
the name zygote).
KRT-2010 111
 When your bread gets old and green
or black, you are seeing a type of
zygote fungus in action. If you wait
long enough, you will see the stalks
develop and the zygotes released.

KRT-2010 112
 SINGLE CELLS
 Now lets look at Sac Fungi, simple,
single celled fungi.

KRT-2010 113
Fungi
 Heterotrophic – they
cannot make their
own food molecules
 Some like mycorrhizae
absorb essential
minerals from the soil
needed by plants
 About 80% of plant
disease is caused by
fungi which are
parasites
 Many decompose
organic matter

KRT-2010 114
Fungi absorb food after digesting it
outside their bodies
 Secrete powerful enzymes that
digest their food externally then
absorb the nutrient molecules
 Multicellular except yeast
 Mycelium is a feeding network of
hyphae
 Mushroom is just the above
ground reproductive structure of
a much more extensive
underground mycelium
 Not celllulose cell walls, but chitin
which is a polymer of a nitrogen-
containing sugar
 No flagellated cells in their life
cycle

KRT-2010 115
KRT-2010 116
Lichens – fungi living mutualistically
with photosynthetic organisms
 The mutualistic
merger is so complete
they are actually
named as a species
 Gives the two
organisms the ability
to survive in habitats
that are inhospitable
to either alone
 Can tolerate severe
cold, withstand severe
drought but sensitive
to air pollutants

KRT-2010 117
Mycorrhizae are symbiotic / mutual fungi on roots

Mycorrhizae:
a) increase surface area of roots
b) produce antibiotics to ward off
competing plants
c) Are specie specific to plants
d) Helped plants evolve on land
e) Seeds exposed to fungi spores
grow better

The plant provides carbohydrates

to the fungus

KRT-2010 118
 ,

I am not mold !
I am not rotting you!
I am Mycorrhizae,
I am a fun guy

KRT-2010 119
Fungi have enormous ecological
impact
 Decomposers and
recyclers of organic
matter
 Used to ripen cheese
 Yeasts used in baking,
brewing and
winemaking
 Produce antibiotics
 As well as the
mutualistic partners in
mycorrhizae and
lichens

KRT-2010 120
 YEAST
Yeast is used to make several types of
food for humans. We need yeast to
make breads. We also use them to
make alcohol. It's a whole process
called fermentation.

KRT-2010 121
 Some fungi are beneficial.
 Sugars are broken down in an
environment without oxygen. It's
called anaerobic fermentation. And
voila, alcohol. Even though they are
single celled, you may find them in
colonies. They reproduce very
quickly and hang out together. It
takes a lot of them (because they
are so small) to get a lot of work
done
KRT-2010 122
Parasitic fungi

 Corn smut, Dutch elm

disease and botrytis
 Some of the fungi that
attach food crops are
toxic to humans
 LSD is from the toxin
in ergots in grain
crops
 Mycosis – fungal
infection (ringworm,
athlete’s foot, vaginal
yeast infections)

KRT-2010 123
Plant diversity is a nonrenewable
resource

KRT-2010 124
 Antibiotics
 one of the first antibiotics was called
penicillin. It was developed from a
fungus (a fungus named Penicillium
found on an orange, to be exact).

KRT-2010 125
 Classification of the plants we will cover in this course.

Bryophytes Pteridophytes Gymnosperms: Angiosperms:

(mosses, Ferns and Conifers, Flowering
liverworts) allies cycads etc plants

Mesozoic
120MYBP

Carboniferous
350MYBP
Seeds
Devonian
400MYBP Vascular tissues (tracheids or derivatives)
KRT-2010 126
 Nonvascular Plants
 Bryophytes

 Fewer than 19,000

species
 Three groups
Liverworts
Hornworts
Mosses
KRT-2010 127
Bryophytes
 Includes mosses
 Have a cuticle and
embryos retained on
the parent plant
 Lack vascular tissue,
but some have water-
conducting tubes
 Lack internal support
 Plants grow in a tight
pack holding each
other up
 Flagellated sperm
must swim

KRT-2010 128
 Bryophytes

 Small, nonvascular,
nonwooody
 Gametophyte dominates life
cycle; has leaflike, stemlike,
and rootlike parts
 Usually live in wet habitats

 Flagellated sperm require

water to reach eggs
KRT-2010 129
 Bryophytes
These are the mosses and liverworts, both relatively common well-
known groups of non-flowering plants typical of permanently damp
areas. (Actually a few specialise in dry open sites – fire sites, bare
concrete etc). The dominant phase is a leafy form (the
gametophyte), which is genetically different to the stalked pods that
produce its spores.

A typical moss, showing

the spore capsule, which
is a genetically different
plant to the green fronds
from which it grows.
(More later..)

KRT-2010 130
Types of Bryophytes

Mosses (most common)

Liverworts (simplest)

Hornworts

KRT-2010 131
The hepatica: Liverworts. These also make genetically
distinct spore-dispersing individuals, but here the spores are
dispersed from an umbrella-like structure, while the main plant (the
gametophyte) is generally flattened, plate-like.

sporophytes

c. 2 cm

The common liverwort

Marchantia

KRT-2010 132
 Marchantia: A Liverwort
 Reproduces Do not
post on

asexually by
Internet

gemmae

 Gametophytes
are male or
female
Female gametophyte
Figure 23.7
KRT-2010 133
Page 389
 Moss Life Cycle
Zygote grows, mature
develops into a sporophyte
sporophyte while
still attached to
gametophyte.
zygote
Diploid Stage
Fertilization Meiosis
Haploid Stage

Spores
germinate.
sperm-
producing
structure male
gametophyte
egg-
producing female
Figure 23.5 structure gametophyte
KRT-2010 134
Page 388
 Peat Mosses
 350 species

 Sphagnum is an example

 Grow in acidic bogs; important ecosystems of

cold and temperate regions

 Peat can be harvested and burned as fuel

KRT-2010 135
Tumbuhan lumut (Bryophyta)
merupakan sekumpulan tumbuhan kecil yang termasuk
dalam divisio Bryophyta (dari bahasa Yunani bryum,
"lumut").

Tumbuhan ini tingkatannya lebih tinggi dari Thallophyta

dengan habitus yang ber-macam2.
- Warna hijau 9klorofil a dan b)
- Selnya berdinding terdiri dari selulosa
- Alat kelamin terdiri atas anteridium dan arkegonium
- Terdiri dari lumut daun (musci) dan lumut hati (hepaticae)
 organ penyerap haranya adalah rizoid (: "serupa akar").
Daun tumbuhan lumut dapat berfotosintesis. Tumbuhan
lumut merupakan tumbuhan pelopor, yang tumbuh di
suatu tempat sebelum tumbuhan lain mampu tumbuh.

KRT-2010 136
Perkembangbiakan
Tumbuhan lumut mengalami pergiliran keturunan dalam daur hidupnya. Apa
yang dikenal orang sebagai tumbuhan lumut merupakan tahap gametofit
(tumbuhan penghasil gamet) yang haploid (x = n). Dengan demikian,
terdapat tumbuhan lumut jantan dan betina karena satu tumbuhan tidak
dapat menghasilkan dua sel kelamin sekaligus.
Sel-sel kelamin jantan (sel sperma) dihasilkan dari anteridium dan sel-sel
kelamin betina (sel telur atau ovum) terletak di dalam arkegonium. Kedua
organ penghasil sel kelamin ini terletak di bagian puncak dari tumbuhan.
Anteridium yang masak akan melepas sel-sel sperma. Sel-sel sperma
berenang (pembuahan terjadi apabila kondisi lingkungan basah) menuju
arkegonium untuk membuahi ovum.
Ovum yang terbuahi akan tumbuh menjadi sporofit yang tidak mandiri karena
hidupnya disokong oleh gametofit. Sporofit ini diploid (x = 2n) dan berusia
pendek (3-6 bulan untuk mencapai tahap kemasakan). Sporofit akan
membentuk kapsula yang disebut sporogonium pada bagian ujung.
Sporogonium berisi spora haploid yang dibentuk melalui meiosis.
Sporogonium masak akan melepaskan spora. Spora tumbuh menjadi suatu
berkas-berkas yang disebut protonema. Berkas-berkas ini tumbuh meluas
dan pada tahap tertentu akan menumbuhkan gametofit baru.
KRT-2010 137
 Vascular Plants
 Majority of plants
 Have internal tissues that carry
water and solutes
 Two groups
– Seedless vascular plants
– Seed-bearing vascular plants

KRT-2010 138
 Seedless Vascular Plants
 Arose during the Devonian
 Produce spores but no seeds

 Four main groups

Whisk ferns
Lycophytes
Horsetails
Ferns

KRT-2010 139
Seedless vascular plants
 Includes ferns
 Well-developed roots
and rigid stems
 Flagellated sperm that
require water to reach
eggs
 In many species the
leaves sprout from
stems that grow along
the ground
(fiddleheads)

KRT-2010 140
Seedless Vascular Plants
 Like bryophytes
– Live in wet, humid places
– Require water for
fertilization
 Unlike bryophytes
– Sporophyte is free-living
and has vascular tissues

KRT-2010 141
Seedless Vascular Plants
Lycophytes (Lycophyta)
Whisk ferns
(Psilophyta)
Horsetails
(Sphenophyta)
Ferns (Pterophyta)

KRT-2010 142
 Pteridophytes: ferns, horsetails,
club mosses and allies.
Pteridophytes are the group of plants which first (as far as we can tell…)
developed the tracheid cells which permit stems to rise high above any
water supply, and as such were the first colonists of dry land, at least 400
MYBP. We have a good fossil record of them (in fact our industry has
depended on burning this fossil record since the inception of the
industrial revolution!). The facets which fossilise show that apart from
the extinction of the giant forms, this group has changed little since the
Devonian.

Like mosses these plants have two genetically distinct phases in their life
cycle, but here the dominant phase is the sporophyte, the familiar fern
leaves etc.
KRT-2010 143
 Ferns
These are ancient but still successful forms, in which the spore-bearing
stage is very familiar. Bracken Pteridium aquilinum is one of the most
widespread and pernicious weeds on the planet! We still have tree ferns,
native to Gondwanaland (Australasia, South America, Africa) but now
widely planted in tropical, subtropical and frost-free temperate areas. In
all cases spores are shed from the underside of the leaves (fronds).

Bracken Pteridium aquilinum

A tree fern Dicksonia antarctica

KRT-2010 144
 Ferns (Pterophyta)
 12,000 species, mostly tropical
 Most common sporophyte structure
– Perennial underground stem (rhizome)
– Roots and fronds arise from rhizome
– Young fronds are coiled “fiddleheads”
– Mature fronds divided into leaflets
– Spores form on lower surface of some
fronds

KRT-2010 145
 Fern Life Cycle

Sporophyte still attached

to gametophyte

sorus
zygote rhizome
Diploid Stage
fertilization meiosis
Haploid Stage Spores
Spores develop are
egg
released

sperm
Figure 23.9 mature
KRT-2010 146
Page 391 gametophyte Spore germinates
Horsetails (Sphenophyta): Equisetacea
These plants are every-day miracles.
There are only about 15 species in the
world, all in the genus Equisetum. It has
changed hardly at all since the
carboniferous period. I know of a
Carboniferous site in Yorkshire where
one can find 2m high horsetails still
standing, fossilised in a cliff, looking
exactly like living forms (only rather
bigger, though giant horsetail E.
telmateia can grow nearly this tall).
Also known as Lego plants, because the
stems comes apart at the nodes.

KRT-2010 147
Horsetails, contd. The needle-like leaves are reinforced
with silica, and have been used as pan
scrubs. Few animals find them
palatable.
For all their ancientness and oddity they
are a serious weed, with immensely
deep root systems and an ability to
shrug off herbicides.
Gardeners’ Question Time (BBC)
advice on how to respond to horsetails
in your garden
Sell your house, in winter when the
stems aren’t visible.

KRT-2010 148
 Club mosses
(Lycophyta):
Lycopodiacea
These rather nondescript crawling
plants are nowadays confined to a
minor role in northern forests on acid
soils. Present in the UK but easily
overlooked. The sole survivors of a
large group including vast forest-
forming trees in the carboniferous, the
first terrestrial forests. The have a
vascular system, and always one vein
running along the leaf axis.

KRT-2010 149
Pteridophyta / Filicophyta (Tumbuhan paku / paku-pakuan
)
Daur hidup (metagenesis) :
- Daur hidup tumbuhan paku : pergiliran keturunan, yang terdiri dari dua
fase utama:gametofit dan sporofit. Tumbuhan paku yang mudah kita
lihat merupakan bentuk fase sporofit karena menghasilkan spora.
Bentuk generasi fase gametofit dinamakan protalus (prothallus) atau
protalium (prothallium), yang berwujud tumbuhan kecil berupa
lembaran berwarna hijau, mirip lumut hati, tidak berakar (tetapi
memiliki rizoid sebagai penggantinya), tidak berbatang, tidak berdaun.
- Prothallium tumbuh dari spora yang jatuh di tempat yang lembab. Dari
prothallium berkembang anteridium (antheridium, organ penghasil
spermatozoid atau sel kelamin jantan) dan arkegonium
(archegonium, organ penghasil ovum atau sel telur). Pembuahan
mutlak memerlukan bantuan air sebagai media spermatozoid
berpindah menuju archegonium.
- Ovum yang terbuahi berkembang menjadi zigot, yang tumbuh menjadi
tumbuhan paku Setelah terjadi pembuahan (zigot berkembang),
protalium hilang
KRT-2010 150
Morfologi

- Akar yang tumbuh pertama tidak dominan, disusul akar

lain yang tumbuh dari batang
- Batang bercabang, menggarpu
- Dapat berbentuk semak , pohon sampai beberapa meter.
- Ukuran daun bervariasi sampai 6 m;pada umumnya
berdaun majemuk;” tipe daun kecil, tidak bertangkai dan
hanya mempunyai satu tulang daun, tersusun rapat
menurut garis spiral (Lycopsida=paku kawat)”.

Perkembangbiakan : vegetatif : spora

- Sporangium dan spora terdapat pada daun-daun khusus :
sporofil (sering terkumpul membentuk alat yang
menyerupai bunga pada Spermatophyta).

KRT-2010 151
Berdasarkan klasifikasi baru (Smith et al., 2006),
tumbuhan paku dapat dikelompokkan sebagai
berikut:

Divisio: Lycophyta dengan satu kelas: Lycopsida.

Divisio: Pteridophyta dengan empat kelas :

 Psilotopsida, mencakup Ophioglossales.

 Equisetopsida
 Marattiopsida
 Polypodiopsida (=Pteridopsida, Filicopsida)

KRT-2010 152
Kelas Psilotopsida
Bangsa Ophioglossales
Suku Ophioglossaceae (termasuk Botrychiaceae,
Helminthostachyaceae)
Bangsa Psilotales
Suku Psilotaceae (termasuk Tmesipteridaceae)
Kelas Equisetopsida [=Sphenopsida]
Bangsa Equisetales
Suku Equisetaceae
Kelas Marattiopsida
Bangsa Marattiales
Suku Marattiaceae (termasuk Angiopteridaceae, Christenseniaceae,
Danaeaceae, Kaulfussiaceae)
Kelas Polypodiopsida [=Filicopsida, Pteridopsida]
Bangsa Osmundales
Suku Osmundaceae
Bangsa Hymenophyllales
Suku Hymenophyllaceae (termasuk Trichomanaceae)
Bangsa Gleicheniales
Suku Gleicheniaceae (termasuk Dicranopteridaceae,
Stromatopteridaceae)
Suku Dipteridaceae (termasuk Cheiropleuriaceae)
Suku Matoniaceae KRT-2010 153
Bangsa Schizaeales
Suku Lygodiaceae
Suku Anemiaceae (termasuk Mohriaceae)
Suku Schizaeaceae
Bangsa Salviniales
Suku Marsileaceae (termasuk Pilulariaceae)
Suku Salviniaceae (termasuk Azollaceae)
Bangsa Cyatheales
Suku Thyrsopteridaceae
Suku Loxomataceae
Suku Culcitaceae
Suku Plagiogyriaceae
Suku Cibotiaceae
Suku Cyatheaceae (termasuk Alsophilaceae,
Hymenophyllopsidaceae)
Suku Dicksoniaceae (termasuk Lophosoriaceae)
Suku Metaxyaceae
Bangsa Polypodiales
Suku Lindsaeaceae (termasuk Cystodiaceae,
Lonchitidaceae)
Suku Saccolomataceae
Suku Dennstaedtiaceae (termasuk Hypolepidaceae,
Monachosoraceae, Pteridiaceae)
KRT-2010 154
Suku Pteridaceae (termasuk Acrostichaceae,
Actiniopteridaceae, Adiantaceae, Anopteraceae,
Antrophyaceae, Ceratopteridaceae, Cheilanthaceae,
Cryptogrammaceae, Hemionitidaceae,
Negripteridaceae, Parkeriaceae, Platyzomataceae,
Sinopteridaceae, Taenitidaceae, Vittariaceae)
Suku Aspleniaceae
Suku Thelypteridaceae
Suku Woodsiaceae (termasuk Athyriaceae,
Cystopteridaceae)
Suku Blechnaceae (termasuk Stenochlaenaceae)
Suku Onocleaceae
Suku Dryopteridaceae (termasuk Aspidiaceae,
Bolbitidaceae, Elaphoglossaceae, Hypodematiaceae,
Peranemataceae)
Suku Lomariopsidaceae (termasuk Nephrolepidaceae

KRT-2010 155
Suku Tectariaceae
Suku Oleandraceae
Suku Davalliaceae
Suku Polypodiaceae (termasuk Drynariaceae,
Grammitidaceae, Gymnogrammitidaceae,
Loxogrammaceae, Platyceriaceae,
Pleurisoriopsidaceae)

KRT-2010 156
Seed-Bearing Vascular Plants
 Gymnosperms arose
first
– Cycads
– Ginkgos
– Gnetophytes
– Conifers
 Angiosperms arose later
– Monocots
– Dicots

KRT-2010 157
 Evolutionary Trend
Figure 23.2
zygote Page 386

KRT-2010 158
GREEN ALGA BRYOPHYTE FERN GYMNOSPERM ANGIOSPERM
 Traits of
Seed-Bearing Plants

 Pollen grains
– Arise from megaspores
– Develop into male gametophytes
– Can be transported without water
 Seeds
– Embryo sporophyte inside nutritive
tissues and a protective coat
– Can withstand hostile conditions

KRT-2010 159
 Rise of Seed-Bearing Plants
 Seeds appeared about 360 million
years ago
 Seed ferns and gymnosperms
were dominant at first
 Angiosperms arose later

KRT-2010 160
 Carboniferous
 Giant lycophytes and horsetails

 Sea level rose and fell repeatedly

 Remains of swamp forests were

repeatedly submerged and
compressed

 Formation of coal

KRT-2010 161
 Seed-Bearing Plants
 Microspores that give rise to
pollen grains
 Megaspores inside ovules
 More water-conserving than
seedless vascular plants

KRT-2010 162
 SPERMATOPHYTA
-Tingkat perkembangan yang paling tinggi
-Telah menghasilkan biji: tumbuhan berbiji
(Spermatophyta)
-Biji berasal dari bunga : Tumbuhan Berbunga (Anthophyta)
-Dibagi menjadi 2 sub divisi: tumbuhan berbiji telanjang
(Gymnospermae) dan berbiji tertutup = bakal biji terbungkus
oleh karpela/daun buah (Angiospermae)
- Angiospermae terdiri dari dua kelas : Dicotyledoneae
(tumbuhan biji belah/memiliki dua daun lembaga) dan
Monocotyledoneae ( mempunyai satu daun lembaga)

KRT-2010 163
- Kesepakatan umum tentang bagaimana tumbuhan
berbunga dikelompokkan mulai tercapai sejak hasil
"Angiosperm Phylogeny Group" (APG) dikeluarkan pada
tahun 1998 dan diperbaharui (update) pada tahun 2003
sebagai Sistem Klasifikasi APG II.
- Jenisnya diperkirakan berkisar antara 250 000 hingga
400 000 yang dikelompokkan menjadi 462 suku/famili
(APG, 1998).
- Dari keseluruhan spesies: monokotil = 23%
dikotil= 75%.

KRT-2010 164
Sepuluh besar suku tumbuhan menurut banyaknya jenis
adalah sebagai berikut:
Asteraceae atau Compositae (suku kenikir-kenikiran): 23.600
jenis
Orchidaceae (suku anggrek-anggrekan): 21.950
Fabaceae atau Leguminosae (suku polong-polongan): 19.400
Rubiaceae (suku kopi-kopian): 13.183
Poaceae, Glumiflorae, atau Gramineae (suku rumput-
rumputan): 10.035
Lamiaceae atau Labiatae (suku nilam-nilaman): 7.173
Euphorbiaceae (suku kastuba-kastubaan): 5.735
Cyperaceae (suku teki-tekian): 4.350
Malvaceae (suku kapas-kapasan): 4.225
Araceae (suku talas-talasan): 4.025
Orchidaceae, Poaceae, Cyperaceae dan Araceae adalah
monokotil.
KRT-2010 165
Kesepuluh suku di atas mencakup beragam jenis
tumbuhan penting dalam kehidupan manusia, baik
dalam bidang pertanian, kehutanan maupun industri.

Suku rumput-rumputan jelas merupakan suku terpenting

karena menghasilkan berbagai sumber energi pangan
bagi manusia dan ternak dari padi, gandum, jagung,
juwawut, tebu, serta sorgum. Suku polong-polongan
menempati tempat terpenting kedua, sebagai sumber
protein nabati dan sayuran utama dan berbagai peran
budaya lain (kayu, pewarna, dan racun). Suku nilam-
nilaman beranggotakan banyak tumbuhan penghasil
minyak atsiri dan bahan obat-obatan.

KRT-2010 166
Beberapa suku penting lainnya dalam kehidupan manusia adalah:
- Solanaceae (suku terong-terongan), sebagai sumber pangan
penting terutama sayuran
- Cucurbitaceae (suku labu-labuan), sebagai sumber sayuran
penting
- Brassicaceae atau Cruciferae (suku sawi-sawian), sebagai
sumber sayuran dan minyak pangan penting
- Alliaceae (suku bawang-bawangan), sebagai sumber sayuran
bumbu penting
- Piperaceae (suku sirih-sirihan), sebagai sumber rempah-rempah
penting.
- Arecaceae atau Palmae (suku pinang-pinangan), sebagai
pendukung kehidupan penting masyarakat agraris daerah
tropika
- Rutaceae (suku jeruk-jerukan), Rosaceae (suku mawar-
mawaran), dan Myrtaceae (suku jambu-jambuan) banyak
menghasilkan buah-buahan penting. -
KRT-2010 167
Tumbuhan berbunga juga menjadi pemasok
sumberdaya alam dalam bentuk kayu, kertas,
serat (misalnya kapas, kapuk, and henep,
serat manila), obat-obatan (digitalis, kamfer),
tumbuhan hias (ruangan maupun terbuka), dan
berbagai daftar panjang kegunaan lain.

KRT-2010 168
Gymnosperms
 Naked seed
because it isn’t
produced in a
specialized
chamber
 Conifers – pine,
spruce, and fir are
the largest group

KRT-2010 169
 Gymnosperms
This group contains many well-known plants, including all
coniferous trees (pines, larch, spruce etc), yews and allies, along
with other ‘living fossils’ the cycads, plus a few simple plain
oddities thrown in to keep botanists happy.

Gymnosperm means ‘naked seed’, and indeed in this group the

fertilised seed protrudes from the cone/aril. They have apparently
lost the sporophyte generation (but see later), and are now trees
which shed viable seed that germinates to make a new tree – the
pattern of seed germination which we are familiar with. They have
tracheids allowing water to be sucked to great heights: the this
group contains probably the largest (Sequoia) and oldest
(Bristlecone pine, Pinus aristata) organisms in the world.

KRT-2010 170
 Gymnosperms
 Plants with “naked seeds”
 Seeds don’t form inside an
ovary
 Four groups
Conifers Ginkgos
Cycads Gnetophytes

KRT-2010 171
 Conifer Characteristics
 Widest known, largest number of
living species
 Woody trees or shrubs
 Most are evergreen
 Bear seeds on exposed cone scales
 Most produce woody cones

KRT-2010 172
 Most people know one group of gymnosperms;
Conifers the conifers. Literally the cone bearers – these
are pines, spruces, larches, firs etc.

Cones – correctly stobili (1

strobilus) are sexual organs
either shedding pollen (male
cones) or bearing ovaries,
awaiting fertilisation by wind-
blown pollen (female cones).
Female pine cone In fact all gymnosperms, plus male pine cone
lycoods, have similar
structures. You will meet the
terms microsporangia (pollen-
producing organs) and
megasporangia (egg producing
organs).
KRT-2010 173
 Cycads
 Most diverse during
age of dinosaurs
 Only 100 living
species
 Palmlike appearance

 Pollen-bearing and
seed-bearing cones
on different plants Do not
post on
Internet
Figure 23.14e Strobilus of a “female” cycad
KRT-2010 174
Page 394
 These plants look rather like stunted palms, or possibly
Cycads rather tough tree ferns, but are neither. They are
gymnosperms that have changed little since the Jurassic
period, when they were dominant land cover and
presumably staple food for herbivorous dinosaurs.

Now they are thinly scattered in tropical areas, some

highly endangered.

Males and females plants are separate, using a wind-

dispersed pollen to fertilise their cones. The male
gamete is notable for using cilia to swim towards the
egg (the ‘highest’ occurrence of cilia in the plant
kingdom).
Some cycads fix atmospheric nitrogen using a
symbiosis with blue-green algae living in their stems
and roots.
KRT-2010 175
 Ginkgos

 Diverse during
age of dinosaurs Do not
post

 One surviving
photos
on
Internet
species, Ginkgo
biloba
 Deciduous trees
are male or
female

KRT-2010
Fig.176
23.15
 Ginkgo biloba – the wonderful
discovery
People had since the early days of fossil hunting been recovering
well-preserved fossil leaves from Ancient (Jurassic and earlier)
which looked like an unrolled pine needle. No living plant matched
this pattern.

Then in 1691 the German Engelbert Kaempfer discovered strange

trees with exactly this unfamiliar leaf form in Japan, cultivated in
temple gardens. They proved to be living specimens of Ginkgo, one
male and one female. Thankfully their seed was fertile, and has
now been widely propagated. The oldest in the UK is in Oxford
botanic gardens (pruned and now rather small for its age). Generally
males are planted as the female flower is rather sticky and smelly.
(Sex is coded by an X-Y chromosome system, as in mammals).
KRT-2010 177
 3 Genera of Gnetophytes

 Gnetum

 Welwitschia

 Ephedra Do not
post on
Internet

Sporophyte of Ephedra

Figure 23.16a
KRT-2010 178
Page 395
 Welwitschia mirabilis
This is certainly one of the strangest plants in the world, whose
classification inside the gymnosperms has long been assumed but is
confirmed by DNA analyses.

It lives only in the Namib desert, South Africa, in a region where

rain never falls. Instead it relies on the mist that condenses in
coastal regions where cold currents from the southern oceans well
up against the desert.

Welwitschia has only 2 leaves, long strap-like ones that grow

perpetually from their base while the ends become frayed and tatty.
It is dioecious.

KRT-2010 179
 Pine Cones
 Woody scales of a “pine cone”
are the parts where megaspores
formed and developed into
female gametophytes
 Male cones, where microspores
and pollen are produced, are not
woody

KRT-2010 180
 section
through one
surface view of one cone scale ovule
(houses two ovules)
Pine Life Cycle ovule

surface view of one cone scale

(houses a pollen-producing sac)

mature
sporophyte seed section through a
coat pollen-producing sac
zygote
seeding embryo Diploid
seed fertilization meiosis
pollen tube
Haploid
microspores
sperm- eggs form
megaspores
producing cell pollination form
female
gametophyte
Figure 23.17
KRT-2010 181
Page 396
 Conifer Distribution
 Reproduce more slowly than
angiosperms; at competitive
disadvantage in many habitats

 Still
dominate in far north, at
higher elevations, and in certain
parts of southern hemisphere

KRT-2010 182
Angiosperms

 Flowering plants

KRT-2010 183
 Angiosperms
 Flowering plants
 Dominant land plants (260,000
species)
 Ovulesand (after fertilization)
seeds are enclosed in an ovary
 Three
main groups: magnoliids,
monocots, and eudicots

KRT-2010 184
 Angiosperm Evolutionary Tree

water star
Amborella lilies anise magnoliids monocots eudicots

basal groups Figure 23.19a

KRT-2010 185
Page 398
 Double Fertilization
 Distinctive feature of angiosperms

 Malegametocyte delivers two

sperm to an ovule

 One fertilizes egg; other fertilizes a

cell that gives rise to endosperm

KRT-2010 186
 sporophyte

Flowering
Plant Life Double fertilization
Diploid
Meiosis Meiosis
Haploid
Cycle mitosis
without
microspores
pollination cytoplasmic
division

two
sperm
enter
ovule
Figure 23.20
KRT-2010 female gametophyte 187
Page 399
 Angiosperms: Monocotyledons
and Dicotyledons
Flowering plants (phylum Anthophyta) come in two fundamentally
different ‘designs’ or classes, known as the Monocotyledons and
Dicotyledons. Or Monocots and Dicots in botanical jargon.

Formally these are defined by the number of seed leaves, or

cotyledons, that emerge when the seed 1st germinates. In
Monocotyledons it is 1, in Dicotyledons it is 2. Coinciding with
this are a series of other characteristics which are so consistent that
everyone seemed happy that these are monophyletic groups,
splitting from the gymnosperms about 130 MYBP (early
Cretaceous).
KRT-2010 188
 Angiosperm Classes: Monocots vs. Dicots

Characteristic Monocot Dicot

Flower parts Usually in threes, or Usually in fours or

multiples of threes fives

Cotyledons One Two

Leaf venation Usually parallel Usually netlike

Primary vascular Complex arrangement In a ring

bundles in stem

True secondary growth Absent Commonly

with vascular cambium present

KRT-2010 189
 Monocotyledons

This truly monophyletic group contains all

grasses, sedges, rushes, bamboo etc. Orchids.
Pineapples and allies (the bromeliads). Lilies,
and their succulent relatives Aloes. Few trees
but including bananas and palms.

KRT-2010 190
 Dicotyledons. Actually the
eudicotyledons plus a few others…
It is here that I have to confess to a certain
oversimplification. Neat though the division was, recent
(late 1990s) DNA work has shown that the group known
as ‘Dicots’ consists of 4 groups, all as unrelated to each
other as they are to the monocots. Fortunately, virtually
all the ones you are likely to meet are in a good
monophyletic group, now called the Eudicotyledons.

(Sometimes DNA research makes a good simple system

needlessly complicated..)
KRT-2010 191
 Eudicotyledons

Here we have most

gardens flowers, all
herbs, cacti, climbers,
and most trees.

KRT-2010 192
 People and Plants
 Plant
domestication began about
11,000 years ago

 About3,000 species have been

used as food

 Now about 200 plants are major

crops

KRT-2010 193
Nonfood Uses of Plants
 Lumber, paper, and fuel
 Furniture

 Rope

 Thatched roofing
 Natural insecticides
 Drugs

KRT-2010 194
 Plants of Abuse
 Tobacco plants are Nicotiana sp.
 Cannabis sativa is source of
marijuana
 Coca leaves are used to produce
cocaine
 Toxic plant alkaloids, such as
henbane and belladona, have been
used as poisons and as medicine

KRT-2010 195
KRT-2010 196