Compressors: Applied Thermodynamics & Heat Engines

Compressor
Compressors
Applied Thermodynamics & Heat Engines
S.Y. B. Tech.
ME0223 SEM - IV
Production Engineering
ME0223 SEM-IV Applied Thermodynamics & Heat Engines S. Y. B. Tech. Prod Engg.
Compressor
Outline
• Use of compressed air, Classification.
• Single – stage reciprocating compressor with and without clearance.
• Work and Power Calculations.
• Two – stage air compressor with Perfect Intercooling.
• FAD and volumetric Efficiency.
Compressor
Air Compressors
COMPRESSOR – A device which takes a definite quantity of fluid ( usually gas, and
most often air ) and deliver it at a required pressure.
Air Compressor – 1) Takes in atmospheric air,
2) Compresses it, and
3) Delivers it to a storage vessel ( i.e. Reservoir ).
Compression requires Work to be done on the gas,
 Compressor must be driven by some sort of Prime Mover ( i.e. Engine )
Compressor
Air Compressors
Energy received by Prime Mover  1) Fraction absorbed for Frictional work.
2) Fraction Lost to Radiation.
3) Fraction absorbed by Coolant .
4) Rest is stored as Useful Work in air.
Heat Rejected Heat to Radiation

Frictional Heat to
Work Coolant
Prime Mover Compressor

Work
Heat LP Air In HP Air Out
Source
Compressor
Uses of Compressed Air
Powering portable Drills and Hammers

Excavating
small Engines in road building
Compressed Air
Tunneling
Operating Brakes for Starting the and Mining
buses, trucks and trains Diesel engines
Compressor
Uses of Compressed Air
CUPOLA
Smelting of Metals Furnaces Blowing Converters
Compressed Air
Air
Ventilation Drying Conditioning
Compressor
Classification
Air Compressors
Reciprocating Rotary
Centrifugal
No. of Stages No. of Sides of Piston

for Compression in operation
Single – stage Single – acting
Multi - stage Double - Acting
Compressor
Classification
Air Compressors
Nature of Work ( i.e. Use )
Air Pumps / Blowers /

Boosters
Exhausters Superchargers
To Produce Vacuum. Pr. rise is small. Pr. rise for HP gas

i.e. to remove air from a system i.e. 0.7 – 1.05 bar i.e. already compressed gas.
to create low pressure zone.
Compressor
Reciprocating Compressor - Working
Compressor
Reciprocating Compressor - Working
Compressor
Reciprocating Compressor – Equation for Work

P2
3 2’ 2 2”
P2 PV  C 2” P1
(Isothermal)
PV   C
Temperature
(Adiabatic) 2
Pressure
PV n  C 2’
4 1 (Polytropic) 1
P1
V2 V1 V2 V1
Volume Entropy
Operations : 4 – 1 : Volume V1 of air aspirated into Compressor, at P1 and T1.

1 – 2 : Air compressed according to PVn = Const. from P1 to P2.
→ Temp increase from T1 to T2.
2 – 3 : Compressed air at P2 and V2 with temperature T2 is delivered.
Compressor

During Compression, due to the excess temperature above surrounding, the air will
exchange the heat to the surrounding.
 Compression Index, n is always less than γ, the adiabatic index.
As Compressor is a work consuming device, every effort is desired to reduce the work.
Work done = Area under P-V curve

 1 – 2” : Adiabatic Compression = Max. Work.
 1 – 2 : Polytropic Compression
 1 – 2’ : Isothermal Compression = Min. Work.
Isothermal Compression : Not possible in practice.

Every attempt made to bring the actual process
as close as possible to Isothermal.
e.g. Addition of cooling fins / water jacket to the cylinder.
Compressor

Thus, comparison between the Isothermal Work and the Actual Work is important.
Isothermal Work
Isothermal Efficiency, ηiso =
Actual Work
Thus, more the Isothermal Efficiency, more the actual compression approaches to the
Isothermal Compression.
Actual Work = Wact = Area 4-1-2-3-4
3 2’ 2 2”
P2 PV  C Wact = Area (4-1) – Area (1-2) – Area (2-3)
(Isothermal) P2V2  P1V1

PV  C  P1V1   P2V2
(Adiabatic)
n 1
 P V  P1V1 
4
PV n  C  P1V1  P2V2    2 2 
P1
1 (Polytropic)  n  1 
 PV  P2V2 
 P1V1  P2V2    1 1 
V2 V1  n 1 
Compressor

 1 
Wiso  1   P1V1  P2V2 
 n 1 
 n 
3 2’ 2 2”   P1V1  P2V2 
P2 PV  C  n 1 
(Isothermal)  n   P2V2 
PV   C   P1V1 1  
(Adiabatic)  n 1   P1V1 
PV n  C
P1V1  P2V2
n n
4 1 (Polytropic) Now,
P1
1/ n
V2  P1 
   
V2 V1 V1  P2 
 n  
 P2 P1 
1/ n


Wiso    P1V1 1    
 n  1   P1  P2  
 
Compressor

 n   P  P 1/ n 
Wiso    P1V1 1  2  1  
 n 1   P1  P2  
 n   P  P   1/ n 
3 2’ 2 2”  P1V1 1  2  2  
P2 PV  C 
(Isothermal)
 n 1   P1  P1  
PV   C  n 1

(Adiabatic)  n    P2   n
PV n  C Wiso   P1V1 1    
4 1 (Polytropic)  n 1    P1  
P1  
 n 1

V2 V1  n    P  n

Wiso   mRT1 1   2  
 n 1    P1  
 
The solution of this equation is always negative.
This shows that Work is done ON the Compressor.
Compressor

Clearance Volume :
6 3 2 Volume that remains inside the cylinder

P2
after the piston reaches the end of its
inward stroke.
PV n  C
5 4 1
P1 Thus, Effective Stroke Volume = V1 – V4
V3 V4 V1
Effective Swept Volume, V1-V4

Clearance Volume, Actual Work = Wact = Area 1-2-3-4-1
V3=Vc Swept Volume, V1-V3=Vs
Total Volume, V1 Wact = Area (5-1-2-6-51) – Area (5-4-3-6-5)
Compressor

 m 1
  m 1

n  P   n n  P   n
Wact  P1V1 1   2    P4V4 1   3  
6 3 2 n 1   P1   n  1   P4  
P2    
But, P4 = P1 and P3 = P2
 m 1

PV  Cn
n  P   n
 Wact  P1V1 1   2  
5 4 n 1   P1  
P1
1  
V3 V4 V1  m 1

n   P  n

 P1V4 1   2  
Effective Swept Volume, V1-V4 n 1   P1  
Clearance Volume,  
 n  
 P  P1 
1/ n


 P1 V1  V4  1  2
Total Volume, V1
Wact    
 n 1  

P1  P2  

Compressor
Reciprocating Compressor – Volumetric Efficiency

Volumetric Efficiency :
Ratio of free air delivered to the displacement of the compressor.

6 3 2 Ratio of Effective Swept Volume to Swept Volume.
P2
Presence of Clearance Volume
 Volumetric Efficiency less than 1. ( 60 – 85 % )
PV n  C
Effective Swept Volume
Volumetric Efficiency =
5 4 1 Swept Volume
P1
V1 – V4
V3 V4 V1
=
V1 – V3
Effective Swept Volume, V1-V4
Clearance Volume, Clearance Volume
V3=Vc Swept Volume, V1-V3=Vs Clearance Ratio =
Swept Volume
Total Volume, V1
Vc
= = γ ( 4 – 10 % )
Vs
Compressor

↑ Pr. Ratio ↑ Effect of Clearance Volume
….Clearance air expansion through greater volume before intake

Cylinder bore and stroke is fixed.

6 3 2
P2  Effective Swept Volume (V1 – V4) ↓ with ↑ Pr. Ratio
 ↓ Volumetric Efficiency
V1  V4
 vol 
5 4 V1  V3
1
P1

V1  V3   V3  V4   1
V3

V4
V3 V4 V1
V1  V3  V1  V3  V1  V3 
Effective Swept Volume,
V1-V4 V3 V4 V
 1   3
V1  V3  V1  V3  V3
Clearance Volume,
V3 V3 V
 1   4
Total Volume, V1
V1  V3  V1  V3  V3
Compressor

V4 V1
 vol  1      OR  1     
V3 V2
1/ n 1/ n
6 3 2  P3   P2 
P2  1        OR  1       
 P4   P1 
Volumetric Efficiency is lowered due to :
1. Very high speed

5 4 1
P1 2. Leakage past the piston
V3 V4 V1 3. Too large Clearance Volume
Effective Swept Volume, 4. Obstructions at inlet valves
V1-V4
Clearance Volume, 5. Overheating of air due to contact with
hot cylinder walls
Total Volume, V1
6. Inertia effect of air in suction pipe
Compressor
Reciprocating Compressor – Actual P-V Diagram

Receiver Pressure 1-2-3-4-1 : Theoretical P-V Diagram.
3 2 At 4, inlet valve does not open due to :

P2
1. There must be a pressure difference across the valve to open.
2. Inlet valve inertia.
Pr. Drop continues till sufficient level
Atmospheric Pressure for valve to force its seat.
Intake Depression
4 Some valve bounce is set (wavy line).
1
P1 Eventually, the pressure sets down at a level lower
Valve Bounce than atmospheric pressure. This negative pressure
difference is known as Intake Depression.
Similar situation appears at 2, i.e. at the start of the delivery.
Pressure rise, followed by valve bounce and then pressure settles at a level higher than
the delivery pressure level.
Air delivery to a tank / receiver, hence, generally known as Receiver Pressure.

Compressor
Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage

Cycle 1-2-3-4-1 :
8
Clearance air expansion = 3-4
Swept Volume = (V1 – V4)
Cycle 1-5-6-7-1 :
Clearance air expansion = 6-7
6 5 Swept Volume = (V1 – V7)…..< (V1 – V4)
Pressure
P Vn = Const
Limiting Condition : Cycle 1-8-1 :
3 2 Clearance air expansion = 8-1
4 7 1 Swept Volume = (V1 – V1)…..= 0….No Delivery..!!
Conclusions :
Volume
Clearance Volume
1. ↑ Delivery Pressure ↓ Mass Flow
2. T2 < T5 < T8  Energy Loss
Compressor
High Pressure required by Single – Stage :
 1. Requires heavy working parts.

2. Has to accommodate high pressure ratios.
3. Increased balancing problems.
4. High Torque fluctuations.
5. Requires heavy Flywheel installations.
This demands for MULTI – STAGING…!!
Compressor

Advantages :
1. Air cooling possible between intermediate pressure levels.

2. Energy loss can be overcome.
2. Power required is less than that required for a single – stage compressor.
4. Better mechanical balance.
5. Temperature could be maintained within limits.
6. Reduced losses due to air leakage.
7. Improved lubrication.
8. Improved volumetric efficiency.
9. Lighter construction possible for low pressure cylinders.
Limitations :
Expensive….!!!
Compressor

Series arrangement of cylinders, in which the compressed air from earlier cylinder
(i.e. discharge) becomes the intake air for the next cylinder (i.e. inlet).
L.P. = Low Pressure
Intercooler I.P. = Intermediate

Air Delivery
Pressure
H.P. = High Pressure
L.P. I.P. H.P. Intercooler :

Cylinder Cylinder Cylinder
Compressed air is cooled
between cylinders.
 Final Delivery Temperature ↓.

Intercooler
Air Intake  Internal Energy ↓ .
 Input Work ↓ .
Compressor

Delivery Pr. 6 9 3 5 Overall Pr. Range : P1 – P3
Perfect Intercooling
P3 or Pd
Single – stage cycle : 8-1-5-6-8
Without Intercooling
H.P. Without Intercooling :
PV n  C L.P. : 8-1-4-7-8
Intermediate Pr. 7 4
P2 H.P. : 7-4-5-6-7
2 PV  C
L.P. With Intercooling :
Intake Pr. 8 1 L.P. : 8-1-4-7-8
P1 or Ps
H.P. : 7-2-3-6-7
Volume
Perfect Intercooling : After initial compression in L.P. cylinder, air is cooled in the
Intercooler to its original temperature, before entering H.P. cylinder
i.e. T2 = T1 OR
Points 1 and 2 are on SAME Isothermal line.
Thus, Perfect Intercooling approaches more closely to Ideal Isothermal Compression.
Compressor

Ideal Conditions for Multi – Stage Compressors :
A. Single – Stage Compressor :
6 9 3 5 Single – stage cycle : 8-1-5-6-8
 n

n   P5  
n 1
H.P. W P1 V1 1   
n 1   P1  
7 PV n  C  
4
2 PV  C Delivery Temperature,
L.P. n 1
8 1  P5  n
T5  T1 
P  
 1
Compressor

B. Two – Stage Compressor (Without Intercooling) :
Without Intercooling :
6 9 3 5 L.P. : 8-1-4-7-8
H.P. : 7-4-5-6-7
H.P.  n 1

n   P4  
n
PV n  C W  P1 V1 1   
7 4 n 1   P1  
 
2 PV  C
L.P.  n 1

n   P5   n
8 1  P4 V4 1   
n 1   P4  
 
Without Intercooling  Delivery Temperature also remains SAME.

This is SAME as that of Work done in Single – Stage.
Compressor

C. Two – Stage Compressor (With Perfect Intercooling) :
With Intercooling :
L.P. : 8-1-4-7-8
6 9 3 5
H.P. : 7-2-3-6-7
 n 1

 
P1 V1 1   4  
n P n
W 
H.P. n 1   P1  
 
7 PV n  C
4
 n 1

P 
PV  C P2 V2 1   3  
2 n n

L.P. n 1   P2  
8 1  
Delivery Temperature,
n 1 n 1
 P3  n  P3  n
T3  T2    T1   , as T2  T1
 P2   P2 
Compressor

C. Two – Stage Compressor (With Perfect Intercooling) :
6 9 3 5
With Intercooling :
L.P. : 8-1-4-7-8
H.P. : 7-2-3-6-7
H.P.
7 PV n  C Now, T2 = T1
4
P2V2 = P1V1
2 PV  C
L.P.
8 Also P4 = P 2
1
 n 1 n 1

n   P2  n  P3  n

W  P1 V1 2      
n 1   P1   P2  
 
Shaded Area 2-4-5-3-2 : Work Saving due to Intercooler…!!
Compressor

Condition for Min. Work :
Intermediate Pr. P2 → P1 : Area 2-4-5-3-2 → 0
Intermediate Pr. P2 → P3 : Area 2-4-5-3-2 → 0

6 9 3 5
 There is an Optimum P2 for which Area 2-4-5-3-2
is maximum,
H.P. i.e. Work is minimum…!!
7 PV n  C 
 
n 1
 
n 1

P1 V1 2   2    3  
4 n P n P n
W
2 PV  C n 1   P1   P2  
L.P.  
For min. Work,
8 1
 n 1 n 1

P  P 
d  2 
n n
   3 
 P1   P2  
dW  
  0
dP2 dP2
Compressor

Condition for Min. Work :  n 1 n 1

   
d  2    3  
P n P n
 P1   P2  
 
 
dW
 0
dP2 dP2
 n 1   n 1   n 1    n 1   n 1  
1
n 1
 
 2 P 
 n
 1
   P3 
 n

     
 2 P 
 n
 1

  0
P1  n  n    n  
6 9 3 5
P2 1/ n  P1 P 
 n 1 

 n 

  2 n 1  3
H.P. P2  n 
PV n  C
P2 2  P1 P3 
7 4
2 PV  C
L.P.
P2 P
8 1 P2  P1 P3 OR  3
P1 P2
S. Y. B. Tech. Prod Engg.
Compressor

P2 obtained with this condition (Pr. Ratio per stage is equal) is the Ideal Intermediate
Pr. Which, with Perfect Intercooling, gives Minimum Work, Wmin.
  Equal Work per cylinder…!!
 n 1

 
P1 V1 1   2  
2n P n
W
n 1   P1  
 
 n 1

W
2n  P P 1/ 2
P1 V1 1   1 3  
 n
n 1  P1  
  
 n 1

 
P1 V1 1   3  
2n P 2 n
W
n 1   P1  
 
Compressor
Reciprocating Compressor – Efficiency
Isothermal work done / cycle = Area of P – V Diagram

= P1V1 loge(P2/P1)
Isothermal Power = P1V1 loge(P2/P1) N

kW
60 X 1000
Indicated Power : Power obtained from the actual indicator card taken during a
test on the compressor.
Compressor Efficiency = Isothermal Power

Indicated Power
Isothermal Efficiency = Isothermal Power

Shaft Power
NOTE : Shaft Power = Brake Power required to drive the Compressor.
Compressor
Adiabatic Efficiency : Ratio of Power required to drive the Compressor; compared

with the area of the hypothetical Indicator Diagram; assuming
Adiabatic Compression.
 1
 
   
P1 V1 1   2  
P
 1   P1  
 
 adiabatic 
Brake Power required to drive the Compressor
Mechanical Efficiency : Ratio of mechanical output to mechanical input.
Mechanical Efficiency, ηmech = Indicated Power

Shaft Power
Compressor

How to Increase Isothermal Efficiency ?
A. Spray Injection : Assimilation of water into the compressor cylinder towards the
compression stroke.
Object is to cool the air for next operation.
Demerits : 1. Requires special gear for injection.

2. Injected water interferes with the cylinder lubrication.
3. Damage to cylinder walls and valves.
4. Water must be separated before delivery of air.
B. Water Jacketing : Circulating water around the cylinder to help for cooling the
air during compression.
Compressor

How to Increase Isothermal Efficiency ?
C. Inter – Cooling : For high speed and high Pr. Ratio compressors.
Compressed air from earlier stage is cooled to its original
temperature before passing it to the next stage.
D. External Fins : For small capacity compressors, fins on external surfaces are useful.
E. Cylinder Proportions : Short stroke and large bore provides much greater surface
for cooling.
Cylinder head surface is far more effective than barrel surface.
Compressor

Clearance Volume : Consists of two spaces.
1. Space between cylinder end & the piston to allow for wear.
2. Space for reception of valves.
High – class H.P. compressors : Clearance Vol. = 3 % of Swept Vol.
: Lead (Pb) fuse wire used to measure the gap between
cylinder end and piston.
Low – grade L.P. compressors : Clearance Vol. = 6 % of Swept Vol.

: Flattened ball of putty used to measure the gap
between cylinder end and piston.
Effect of Clearance Vol. :
Vol. taken in per stroke < Swept Vol.  ↑ Size of compressor
↑ Power to drive compressor.
Compressor
Reciprocating Compressor – Work Done

Assumption : Compression and Expansion follow same Law.
Work / cycle = Area 1-2-3-4-1

 n 1
  n 1

6 3 2 n   P2  n
  n P V 1   P3  n

P2 W  P1 V1 1    
n 1   P1   n 1
4 4
  P4  
   
P3 = P 2 and P4 = P1
 n 1

5 4 1 n   P2  n

P1 W  P1 (V1  V4 ) 1   
n 1   P1  
V3 V4 V1  
V1-V4  n 1

P 
P1 Va 1   2  
Clearance Volume, n n
V3=Vc 
  P1  
Swept Volume, V1-V4=Vs
n 1
Total Volume, V1  
Compressor
Reciprocating Compressor – Work Done
 n 1

n   P2  
n
W m1 R T1 1   
P2
6 3 2
n 1   P1  
 
m1 is the actual mass of air delivered.
5 4 1 Work done / kg of air delivered :

P1
V3 V4 V1
 n 1

n   P2  
n
V1-V4
W R T1 1   
Clearance Volume,
n 1   P1  
 
Total Volume, V1

Compressor
Reciprocating Compressor – F.A.D.

Free Air Delivery (F.A.D.) : Actual Vol. delivered at the stated pressure, reduced to
intake temperature and pressure. (m3/min)
Displacement : Actual Vol. in swept out per minute by the L.P. cylinder.(m3/min)
F.A.D. < Displacement, due to :

1. Fluid Resistance through air intake and valves.
This prevents the cylinder being fully charged with atmospheric air.
2. Entering the cylinder, air expands. Thus, mass of air reduces.
Abs. Atm Temp
<1
Abs. Temp. of the air in cylinder.
3. High – Pressure air trapped in the Clearance Vol. has to expand
below atm. Pr. level for suction to start.
So, a portion of the suction stroke is wasted for this expansion.
4. Losses caused by leakages.
Compressor
Thank You !

Compressors: Applied Thermodynamics & Heat Engines

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Compressor

Applied Thermodynamics & Heat Engines

• Use of compressed air, Classification.

• Single – stage reciprocating compressor with and without clearance.

• Work and Power Calculations.

• Two – stage air compressor with Perfect Intercooling.

• FAD and volumetric Efficiency.

most often air ) and deliver it at a required pressure.

Air Compressor – 1) Takes in atmospheric air,

2) Compresses it, and

3) Delivers it to a storage vessel ( i.e. Reservoir ).

Compression requires Work to be done on the gas,

 Compressor must be driven by some sort of Prime Mover ( i.e. Engine )

Heat Rejected Heat to Radiation

Prime Mover Compressor

Heat LP Air In HP Air Out

Uses of Compressed Air

Powering portable Drills and Hammers

Uses of Compressed Air

No. of Stages No. of Sides of Piston

Nature of Work ( i.e. Use )

Air Pumps / Blowers /

To Produce Vacuum. Pr. rise is small. Pr. rise for HP gas

Reciprocating Compressor - Working

Reciprocating Compressor - Working

Reciprocating Compressor – Equation for Work

Operations : 4 – 1 : Volume V1 of air aspirated into Compressor, at P1 and T1.

Reciprocating Compressor – Equation for Work

Work done = Area under P-V curve

Isothermal Compression : Not possible in practice.

Reciprocating Compressor – Equation for Work

Reciprocating Compressor – Equation for Work

Reciprocating Compressor – Equation for Work

Reciprocating Compressor – Equation for Work

6 3 2 Volume that remains inside the cylinder

Effective Swept Volume, V1-V4

Total Volume, V1 Wact = Area (5-1-2-6-51) – Area (5-4-3-6-5)

Reciprocating Compressor – Equation for Work

Reciprocating Compressor – Volumetric Efficiency

Ratio of free air delivered to the displacement of the compressor.

Reciprocating Compressor – Volumetric Efficiency

Cylinder bore and stroke is fixed.

Reciprocating Compressor – Volumetric Efficiency

1. Very high speed

Reciprocating Compressor – Actual P-V Diagram

3 2 At 4, inlet valve does not open due to :

Similar situation appears at 2, i.e. at the start of the delivery.

Air delivery to a tank / receiver, hence, generally known as Receiver Pressure.

Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage

Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage

High Pressure required by Single – Stage :

 1. Requires heavy working parts.

This demands for MULTI – STAGING…!!

Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage

1. Air cooling possible between intermediate pressure levels.

Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage

L.P. = Low Pressure

Intercooler I.P. = Intermediate

L.P. I.P. H.P. Intercooler :

 Final Delivery Temperature ↓.

Air Intake  Internal Energy ↓ .

Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage