Petroleum Formation Evaluation: Sub Code:-PET-352 Credits: - 3

DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
Petroleum Formation Evaluation

Sub Code:- PET-352
Credits:- 3
Lectures:- 45
By:- Shwetank Krishna

Dept. of Petroleum
Engineering
8/21/2019 Petroleum Formation Evaluation 1

Course Objectives
To understand the process of interpreting a combination of
measurements taken inside a wellbore to detect and quantify oil
and gas reserves in the rock adjacent to the well; To know how
the formation evaluation data can be gathered with wireline
logging instruments or logging-while-drilling tools; Data
organization & interpretation by depth and represented on a
graph (or log).

CONTENT
UNIT-1
 Major Concepts of Logging Units- Onshore Units and Offshore Units

 Petro-physical Properties
 Formation factor and water saturation equations
 Self Potential Log
 Resistivity logs (Focused and Non-focused)
 Gamma ray logs
 Spectral Gamma ray logs

Logging Skid Units

Prima Mover
Hydrostatic
For Traction on Roads Hydrostatic Pumps/Motors
Pumps/Motors
• Winch Drive Power Generation

• Downhole Tool
• Sheaves
• Load Cell Surface Console
• Power to tools
• Commands to tools
• Receiving Signals
• Processing
• Recording
PETRO-PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:-
1. Porosity:- Porosity is defined as the no. of pores divided by the bulk volume of
the rock
There are two types of Porosity:-

(i) Primary Porosity
(ii) Secondary Porosity
2. Permeability:- It is defined as the ability of the rock, to allow fluid to flow

through with ease without any hindrance.
Types of Permeability are:-

(i) Absolute Permeability
(ii) Effective Permeability
(iii) Relative Permeability

PETRO-PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:-
3. Saturation:- The amount of fluid stored in the pores of the rock is called the
formation saturation.
4. Resistivity:- The resistivity of a substance is its ability to impede the flow of

electricity current through that substance.
5. Wettability:- Wettability is a term used to describe, when a fluid such as water,

wets the surface of a solid.

Formation Factor Equations:-

Formation factor is represented by ‘F’.
𝑅𝑜 Where, 𝑅𝑜 = Resistivity of oil

𝐹=
𝑅𝑤 𝑅𝑤 = Resistivity of water
Archie’s Proposed Equation:-
𝑎 Where, a= Empirical Constant

𝐹= 𝑚
∅ φ = Porosity
m= cementation factor
Humble Formula:-
0.81
𝐹=
∅2

Water Saturation Equation
Archie’s Equation:-
𝑛
𝑅𝑤
𝑆𝑤 = 𝐹
𝑅𝑡
Where,
𝑆𝑤 = Water Saturation
F = Formation Factor
𝑅𝑤 = Resistivity of Water
𝑅𝑡 = True Resistivity

Self- Potential (SP) Log
1. The spontaneous potential log (SP) can be used to:-

• detect permeable beds
• detect boundaries of permeable beds
• determine formation water resistivity (Rw)
• determine volume of shale (Vshale) in a permeable bed.
2. The SP response in shales is relatively constant, and a vertical line drawn

along the SP response in a shale is referred to as the shale baseline. In
permeable beds, the SP has the following responses relative to the Shale
baseline:
• negative deflection (to the left of the shale baseline) where Rmf > Rw
• positive deflection (to the right of the shale baseline) where Rmf < Rw
• no deflection where Rmf = Rw



Shale Volume Calculation:-
𝑃𝑆𝑃
𝑉𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑒 = 1 −
𝑆𝑆𝑃
where:
𝑉𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑒 = volume of shale
PSP = Pseudostatic spontaneous potential (maximum SP of shaly formation)
SSP = static spontaneous potential of a nearby thick clean sand





Gamma Ray Log

The gamma ray log is a record of a formation’s radioactivity.
The radiation emanates from naturally-occurring uranium, thorium and potassium.
The simple gamma ray log gives the radioactivity of the three elements combined,
while the spectral gamma ray log shows the amount of each individual element
contributing to this radioactivity.
The geological significance of radioactivity lies in the distribution of these three
elements.
Most rocks are radioactive to some degree.
However, amongst the sediments, shales have by far the strongest radiation.
It is for this reason that the simple gamma ray log has been called the ‘shale log’.
However note that not all shales are radioactive, and all that is radioactive is not
necessarily shale (Fig. 1).

Natural Gamma Radiation
Natural radiation in rocks comes essentially from only three elemental sources: the
radioactive elements of the thorium , uranium and of the radioactive isotope of
potassium 40K.
Quantitatively, potassium is by far the most abundant of the three elements ,

but its contribution to the overall radioactivity in relation to its weight is small.
In reality, the contribution to the overall radioactivity of the three elements is of the
same order of magnitude, the abundance seeming to be the inverse of the
contribution in energy: a small quantity of uranium has a large effect on the
radioactivity, a large quantity of potassium a small effect.


Each of the three sources emits gamma rays spontaneously: they emit photons with
no mass and no charge but great energy (this being the definition of gamma ray).
One of the characteristics of gamma rays is that when they pass through any material
their energy is progressively absorbed.
The effect is known as Compton scattering, and is due to the collision between
gamma rays and electrons which produces a degrading (lowering) of energy.
The higher the common density through which the gamma rays pass, the more rapid
the degradation or loss of energy (in reality it depends on the material’s electron
density, which is very similar to common density).
In borehole logging, when radiations are observed by the tool, they have already
passed through the formation and probably also the drilling mud, both of which cause
Compton scattering.



Thus the discrete energy levels at which
gamma rays are emitted become
degraded, and a continuous spectrum
of values is observed.
When each of the radioactive minerals
is present, their radiations become
mixed and the resulting spectrum is
very complex.
However, it will still contain diagnostic
peaks (Fig. 3), which can be used to
identify the original source of radiation.
This is the principle used in the spectral
gamma ray tool.

Gamma Ray Log

𝐺𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑔 − 𝐺𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐼𝐺𝑅 =
𝐺𝑅𝑀𝑎𝑥 − 𝐺𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛
Where,
𝐼𝐺𝑅 = Gamma Ray Index
𝐺𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑔 = Gamma Ray Reading of desired formation
𝐺𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = Minimum Gamma Ray Reading
𝐺𝑅𝑀𝑎𝑥 = Maximum Gamma Ray Reading

In Linear Response,
𝑉𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑒 = 𝐼𝐺𝑅
For Non-linear response,

𝑉𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑒 = 0.083 23.7𝐼𝐺𝑅 − 1
(for Tertiary rocks)
𝑉𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑒 = 0.33 22𝐼𝐺𝑅 − 1

( for pre-tertiary rocks)

Gamma Ray Log

Gamma Ray Log

Gamma Ray Log

Spectral Gamma Ray / Natural Gamma Ray Spectrometry Log
• Similarly like GR log, NGS log also measures the natural radioactivity of the
formations.
• Primary difference is unlike GR log instead of only indicating the total

radioactivity, this log determines the concentration of radioactive K, Th and U
in the formation rocks.
• Gamma ray radiation originates from three primary radioactive isotopes:

𝐾 40 ( Half-life; 1.3 × 109 years); 𝑈 238 (Half-Life; 4.4 × 109 Years) and
𝑇ℎ232 (Half-Life; 1.4 × 1010 Years)
• K decays directly to stable argon by emitting 1.46 MeV gamma ray. However, U
and Th decay sequentially through a long sequence of isotopes before
reaching a stable lead isotopes.
• The characteristics peak of Th and U are 2.62 MeV and 1.76 MeV respectively.
Refer Figure

Gamma Ray Log and Spectral Gamma Ray Log


Resistivity Log
• Resistivity log measures a formation’s resistivity i.e. resistance to the
passage of an electric current, and is measured by resistivity tools.
• Conductivity tools measure a formation’s conductivity – the ability to

conduct an electric current. Conductivity tools are called induction tools.
• Conductivity is generally converted and plotted as resistivity on log

plots.
Types of resistivity log:-
(i) Focussed:- (a) LL3
(b) LL7
(c) LL8
(d) Microelectrode
(e) Induction Logging
(i) Non-Focussed:- (a) Normal Log

(b) Latero Log
Invasion Profile

Resistivity Log
Normal Device- basic arrangement.

Resistivity Log
Lateral Device- basic arrangement.

Resistivity Log
Laterolog 3 (LL3)

Resistivity Log
• Another approach to focusing the measure current

is the seven electrode device or LL7.
• The guard electrodes A1 and A’1 are no longer
elongated; instead, additional monitoring
electrodes have been introduced in order to impede
the flow of current parallel to the sonde through
the borehole mud.
• This is achieved by varying the bucking current of
the guard electrodes so that the potential drop
between the pairs of monitor electrodes (i.e. M’1-
M1 and M’2-M2) is zero. Since the potential drop is
zero along this vertical direction, the current will be
focused into the formation.

Micro-resistivity Log
• Micro-resistivity devices, as their name
implies are resistivity logging tool with
electrode spacing on a much reduced scale.
• A result of reduced spacing, is that their
depth of investigation is also much reduced.
• The electrodes are mounted on special
devices called Pads, which are kept in contact
with the borehole.
• Current is emitted from the button marked
A0, and the potentials of the two electrodes
M1 and M2 are measured.
• To ensure the shallow depth of investigation,
the spacing between electrodes is 1 in.
• The difference in potential between M1 and
M2 measured that is mostly influenced by
the presence of mud cake.
• The potential on electrode M2 measured is
influenced more by the flushed zone.
• For determining Rxo, influence of mudcake is
major disadvntage.
Micro-resistivity Log
• In order to improve the determination of Rxo,

Micro laterolog devices were innovated.
• As indicated left, the bucking current from
electrode A1 focuses the measure current to
penetrate the mud cake.
• Depending on the contrast between Rxo and
Rt, 90 % of the measured signal comes from
the first 2-4 in of formation.
• Various other microelectrode were
discovered to minimize the effect of mud
cake while not reading too deep into the
formation.

Induction Log

Resistivity Log

Resistivity Log

Unit Course Outcome
To be able to know the concepts of well logging

I To be able to know the methods and calculations related to resistivity
log
II To be able to know the porosity logging
To be able to know the production logging
III To be able to know methods to assess the quality of a log
To be able to know the methods to interpret the log data

References
1. George & Daniel, Basic Well Log Analysis, AAPG Methods of Exploration Series-16.
2. Log Interpretation Principles/Analysis, Schlumberger, 1989.
3. O.Serra, Fundamentals of Well Log Analysis, Development of Petroleum Science

15A, Elsevier.

THANK YOU

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DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

Petroleum Formation Evaluation

By:- Shwetank Krishna

8/21/2019 Petroleum Formation Evaluation 1

8/21/2019 Petroleum Formation Evaluation 2

 Major Concepts of Logging Units- Onshore Units and Offshore Units

8/21/2019 Petroleum Formation Evaluation 3

Logging Skid Units

• Winch Drive Power Generation

There are two types of Porosity:-

2. Permeability:- It is defined as the ability of the rock, to allow fluid to flow

Types of Permeability are:-

8/21/2019 Petroleum Formation Evaluation 1

4. Resistivity:- The resistivity of a substance is its ability to impede the flow of

5. Wettability:- Wettability is a term used to describe, when a fluid such as water,

8/21/2019 Petroleum Formation Evaluation 1

Formation Factor Equations:-

𝑅𝑜 Where, 𝑅𝑜 = Resistivity of oil

Archie’s Proposed Equation:-

𝑎 Where, a= Empirical Constant

8/21/2019 Petroleum Formation Evaluation 1

Water Saturation Equation

8/21/2019 Petroleum Formation Evaluation 1

Self- Potential (SP) Log

1. The spontaneous potential log (SP) can be used to:-

2. The SP response in shales is relatively constant, and a vertical line drawn

8/21/2019 Petroleum Formation Evaluation 1

Self- Potential (SP) Log

8/21/2019 Petroleum Formation Evaluation 1

Self- Potential (SP) Log

8/21/2019 Petroleum Formation Evaluation 1

Self- Potential (SP) Log

Shale Volume Calculation:-

8/21/2019 Petroleum Formation Evaluation 1

Self- Potential (SP) Log

8/21/2019 Petroleum Formation Evaluation 1

8/21/2019 Petroleum Formation Evaluation 1

8/21/2019 Petroleum Formation Evaluation 1

Self- Potential (SP) Log

8/21/2019 Petroleum Formation Evaluation 1

Gamma Ray Log

8/21/2019 Petroleum Formation Evaluation 1

Natural Gamma Radiation

Quantitatively, potassium is by far the most abundant of the three elements ,

8/21/2019 Petroleum Formation Evaluation 1

Natural Gamma Radiation

8/21/2019 Petroleum Formation Evaluation 1

Natural Gamma Radiation

8/21/2019 Petroleum Formation Evaluation 1

Natural Gamma Radiation

8/21/2019 Petroleum Formation Evaluation 1

Gamma Ray Log

8/21/2019 Petroleum Formation Evaluation 1

Shale Volume Calculation:-

𝐼𝐺𝑅 = Gamma Ray Index

𝐺𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑔 = Gamma Ray Reading of desired formation

𝐺𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = Minimum Gamma Ray Reading

𝐺𝑅𝑀𝑎𝑥 = Maximum Gamma Ray Reading

8/21/2019 Petroleum Formation Evaluation 23

Shale Volume Calculation:-

For Non-linear response,

𝑉𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑒 = 0.33 22𝐼𝐺𝑅 − 1