309 Havemeyer

Have you seen this

hall in
the movies???
But before we
start the show…
G1403 Fall 2004

Thank
You!

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Tentative Course Material To Be Covered for Exam 1
Exam 1: Wednesday, September 29 (6 lectures covered).

Chapter 1. The Atomic Nature of Matter.

Chapter 2. Stoichiometry.
Chapter 3. Chemical Periodicity and the Formation of Simple Compounds.

Exam 2: Wednesday, October 27 (7 lectures covered)

Chapter 15. Nuclear Chemistry.

Chapter 16. Quantum Mechanics and the Hydrogen Atom.
Chapter 17. Many-electron Atoms and Chemical Bonding.

Exam 3: Wednesday, December 1 (8 lectures covered)

Chapter 18. Molecular Orbitals, Spectroscopy, and Atmospheric Chemistry.

Chapter 19. Coordination Complexes.
Chapter 24. From Petroleum to Pharmaceuticals.

Period before final (3 lectures covered)

Chapter 25. Synthetic and Biological Polymers (plus spectroscopy of organic molecules)..

Final exam December 20, 2004, 1:10 PM-4 PM (probably in 309 Havemeyer)
Chapter 1: Learning goals:

(1) Distinguish between elements, compounds and mixtures.

(2) Understand the atomic interpretation of elements,
compounds and mixtures.
(3) Laws leading to the Dalton’s atomic theory of matter.
(4) The principles of Dalton’s atomic theory of matter.
(5) Law of combining volumes of gases.
(6) Avogadro’s hypothesis.
(7) The mole concept.
(8) Distinguish between empirical formula, molecular formula,
structural formula.
(9) Perform calculations employing the mole (the chemical
amount) concept.
(10) Interconvert units using dimensional analysis (recitation
section).
Chapter 1. The Atomic Nature of Matter

Reading. This chapter is a review of high school chemistry, especially Sections 1-1 through 1-6. The
exam will stress Sections 1-7 and 1-8.

Homework assignment: Section 1-7: 37, 41, 43 a. Section 1-8: 49, 55, 61, 67. Additional problems:
89, 91, 101, 103, 107.

Chapter 2. Stoichiometry

Reading. You are expected to read all sections.

Homework assignment: Section 2-1: 1, 3 b, c, f, h, 5, 7. Section 2-2: 11, 15, 19, 25. Section 2-3: 33,
41. Section 2-4: 45, 47. Additional problems: 75, 77, 81, 83.

Chapter 3. Chemical Periodicity. Formation of Simple Compounds

Reading. You are expected to read all sections.

Homework assignment: Section 3-3: 17, 19. Section 3-4: 25, 27, 29, 31. Section 3-5: 33, 35, 41,43,
47. Section 3-7: 57, 59, 61, 63, 65, 67, 69. Section 3-8: 73, 81. Additional problems: 87, 89, 91, 93,
95, 97, 105.
Section 1.7: The Mole Concept: Counting and Weighting Atoms and
Molecules

(1) The mole is a number: 6.02 x 1023.

(2) In chemistry the mole refers to the number of atoms or molecules in a

substance.

(3) The “chemical amount” of a substance is given in moles. The amount

of a substance is its mass.

(4) One mole of a substance equals the amount of the substance that
contains Avogadro’s number of atoms for an element or Avogadro’s number of
molecules for a compound.

(5) Instead of counting atoms or molecules, chemists weight substances and

then compute the number of atoms or molecules.

(6) By definition the mass of one mole of carbon atoms is defined as

weighing 12 grams exactly.

(7) The atomic weight of all other elements are based on carbon.
 Catalogs of Materials
• Heterogeneous at the level
of an optical microscope:
wood, most rocks, blood,
milk.

• Homogeneous mixture:
solutions, mixed gasses,
many glasses. Looks
uniform under a
microscope, but can be
separated into various
components using
chromatography,
crystallization or distillation.
“Pay attention, therefore,
while I demonstrate that
there exist certain bodies
that are absolutely solid and
indestructible, namely those
atoms which according to
our teaching are the seeds or
prime units of things from
which the whole universe is
constructed.”

Lucretius, De Rerum
Natura, (Book IV)
All States of Matter Are Made
of Atoms and Molecules
Densities of Molecules:

Rare, or Low: Gas

Dense but Fluid: Liquid

Dense, Well-Packed and Mostly

Stationary: Solid
 The Atom: Nucleus
Surrounded by Electrons
198 Au
Section 1.2 The Composition of Matter and Section 1.3: The Atomic Theory of Matter.

Matter: Matter is any material that occupies space and has mass.

Atomic interpretation: Any material that contains atoms, which occupy space and have mass.

Substance (idealization): A substance is a chemically pure sample of matter. This means the
sample does not change its characteristics upon further attempts of purification.

Element: An element is a substance which cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by

chemical processes. Examples: hydrogen, carbon, oxygen.

Atomic interpretation: An element is a substance that contains only one kind of atom. Hydrogen
(H) atoms, carbon atoms (C), oxygen atoms (O).

Compound: A compound is a substance that can be decomposed into simpler substances by chemical
processes. Examples: water, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide.

Atomic interpretation: A compound is a substance that contains atoms of two or more chemical
elements. H, C, O.

Mixture: A sample of matter that is not a pure substance.

 Antoine Lavoisier: 1743-1794
He established the Law of Conservation of Mass by
burning phosphorus and sulfur in air, and
proving that the products weighed more than the
original. The weight gained was lost from the air.
Repeating the experiments of Priestley, he
demonstrated that air is composed of two parts,
one of which combines with metals to form
calxes. He named this portion oxygen (Greek for
acid-former), and the other azote (Greek for no
life). He also discovered that the inflammable air
of Cavendish which he termed hydrogen (Greek
for water-former), combined with oxygen to
produce a dew, as Priestley had reported, which
appeared to be water. He begins therefore a
first systematic list of the elements.
 “Babel” of Chemical
Nomenclature 1770
• Chemistry Symbols
from the 18th century
encyclopedia published
by philosopher Denis
Diderot and
mathemetician Jan Le
Rond D’Alembert
• These symbols
describe Alloys,
compounds, chemical
operations, quantities,
glassware, etc.
 A Page from
Lavoisier’s Book
Nomenclature and Symbols Similar
to the Modern

He proposed chemical reactions

could be written as “equations”,
similar to algebra

He proposed that we keep track of

mass conservation…
forerunner to the “balanced
reaction”, the subject of the next
lecture, Monday September 13.
Laws which lead to the atomic theory of matter:

(1) Law of conservation of mass during a chemical reaction:

Mass is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical change.

(2) Law of definite proportions: For a given compound, the

proportions by mass of the elements that make up the
compound are in a fixed ratio. This ratio does not depend the
origin of the compound or its method of preparation.

(3) Law of multiple proportions: When two elements form

more than one compound, the masses of one of the elements
that combines with a fixed mass of the second element are in
the ratio of small whole numbers. (Problem 1_19).
 John Dalton
Dalton AtomicTheory of Matter (1808)

Quaker, son of a poor weaver, working instead of

school, until he teaches school at age 12.
Interested in meteorology and the atmosphere.

He described regular patterns in the chemical

combining weights of substances, suggesting
the existence of discrete particles of
characteristic mass and combining properties.
See related concepts of law of combining
volumes and law of definite proportions.

However indirect this intellectual connection, it was

apparently correct and put chemistry on a far
more sure footing.

2g H + 16g O -> 18g H2O

14g N + 16g O -> 30g NO
3g H + 14g N -> 17g NH3
Dalton’s Atomic Theory of Matter.

(1) All matter consists of solid and individual atoms.

(2) All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and all other
properties.

(3) Different elements have different kinds of atoms. The mass of

different atoms are different.

(4) The properties of atoms are unchanged when they are involved in
chemical transformations (Law of conservation of mass = conservation of atoms).

(5) Compounds are formed from elements when atoms of unlike elements
combine (Law of definite proportions = when a fixed number of different atoms
combine their numbers and weights are in definite relative proportions to each
other).

(6) More than one compound can be formed by the combination of two
elements (Law of multiple proportions = combinations of different atoms
sometimes occur in small whole numbers).
Section 1.4 Chemical Formulas and Relative Atomic
Masses

Empirical formula: A chemical formula which displays

the relative, not necessarily the absolute, number of atoms in
a compound.
Examples: CH = C2H2 = C3H3 etc. Only the ratio of different
atoms is known in an empirical formula, not the exact
number of each.

Chemical formula (composition): A chemical formula

displays the symbols for the exact numbers and kinds of
elements which compose the compound, with numerical
subscripts that state the number of atoms of each element in
the compound. Examples: water = H2O, ammonia = NH3
Molecular Structure: The key intellectual
framework of all of chemistry.

Composition: Number and kinds of atoms

Constitution: How all the atoms are connected by

bonds to one another

Configuration: How all the atoms are distributed

in space relative to one another in three
dimensions
 Paradigm: A characteristic set
of beliefs and/or preconceptions
(theoretical, instrumental,
procedural and metaphysical)
that is shared by a community
of practitioners. In a global
sense the paradigm
embraces
all of the shared
commitments
of a scientific
group.
A paradigm
is what defines
Thomas Kuhn. 1923-1996. the scientific
community.
 "In a recently published paper,
I pointed out that one
of the causes of the present regression
of chemical research in Germany is the
lack of general, and at the same time
thorough chemical knowledge; no
small number of our professors of
chemistry, with great harm to our
science, are laboring under this lack.
A consequence of this is the spread of
the weed of the apparently scholarly
and clever, but actually trivial and stupid,
natural philosophy, which was displaced
fifty years ago by exact science, but which
is now brought forth again, out of the store
room harboring the errors of the
human mind; by pseudoscientists who try
to smuggle it, like a fashionably dressed and
freshly rouged prostitute, into good society,
where it does not belong."

H. Kolbe, “A Sign of the Times”

1818-1884 J. Prakt. Chem., 15, 474 (1877).
 “A Dr. J. H. van't Hoff, of the
Veterinary School at Utrecht,
has no liking, apparently,
for exact chemical investigation.
He has considered it more
comfortable to mount Pegasus
(apparently borrowed from the
Veterinary School) and to
proclaim in his book how
the atoms appear to him to
be arranged in space,
when he is on the
J. H. van't Hoff chemical Mt. Parnassus
(1852-1911) which he has reached
First Nobel Prize, by bold flight.”
Chemistry, 1901
H. Kolbe, “A Sign of the Times
J. Prakt. Chem., 15, 474 (1877).
The Law of Combining Volumes of Gases: When two gases react, the
volumes that combine are in a ratio of small whole numbers. The ratio of the
volume of each product, if a gas, is also in the ratio of small whole numbers.

Example:

1 Liter of hydrogen + 1 Liter of chlorine = 2 Liters of Hydrogen Chloride

2 Liters of hydrogen + 1 Liter of oxygen = 2 Liters of Water

3 Liters of hydrogen + 1 Liter of nitrogen = 2 Liters of Ammonia

Mass is always conserved; but the volume of a gas is not.

Avogadro’s Law: Equal volumes of different gases contain the same number
of particles. The particles of a gas may be atoms or molecules. One liter of
hydrogen = one liter of chlorine = one liter of hydrogen chloride in terms of
particles (read molecules)
Learning Goals: Chapter 2 Stoichiometry

(1) How to balance chemical equations by inspection.

(2) How to translate the coefficients of the atoms involved in

balanced chemical equations into moles of elements and
compounds and how to translate moles into mass of elements
and compounds.

(3) For gases, how to translate the coefficients of the atoms

involved in balanced chemical equations into moles of elements
and compounds and how to translate moles into volumes of
elements and compounds which are gases.

(4) How to determine the limiting reagent in a reaction from

the balanced chemical equation and the available masses of the
reagents.
Section 2.1 Balancing chemical equations

Chemical equations: An algebraic representation of a chemical reaction.

Balanced chemical equation: Number of moles of atoms on each side of the

equation are identical ( Law of conservation of atoms in a chemical reaction).

Balancing equations by inspection. Balancing algebraically (Section 2.1, pages 55-

57) is possible, but not needed for simple equations.

Strategy for balancing chemical equations:

(a) Start by giving the coefficient 1 to the most complex formula. The one
that contains the most different elements).
(b) Inspect both sides of the equation for elements that appear in only one
formula which the coefficient is unassigned and balance for that element.
(c) Repeat balancing elements, until all are balanced.
(d) By convention, balance equations have only integer coefficients. Eliminate
fractional coefficients by multiplying all the formulae by the smallest integer that
eliminates the fraction.
Example: Find whole numbers for the ? which balance atoms.

? NaCl + ? SO2 + ? H2O + ? O2 -> ? Na2SO4 + ? HCl

? NaCl + ? SO2 + ? H2O + ? O2 -> 1 Na2SO4 + HCl

2 NaCl + 1 SO2 + ? H2O + ? O2 -> Na2SO4 + HCl

2 NaCl + SO2 + ? H2O + ? O2 -> Na2SO4 + 2 HCl

2 NaCl + SO2 + 1H2O + ? O2 -> Na2SO4 + 2 HCl

2 NaCl + SO2 + 1 H2O + 1/2 O2 -> Na2SO4 + 2 HCl

Balanced Equation (remove fractional coefficients):

4 NaCl + 2 SO2 + 2 H2O + 1 O2 -> 2 Na2SO4 + 4 HCl

(1) Translate coefficients of a balanced chemical equation
into moles. Obtain relative number of moles of reactants and
products independent of the actual chemical amounts.

(2) Translate coefficients into molecules. Obtain relative

number of molecules of reactants and products independent of
the actual chemical amounts.

(3) Mass relationships in chemical reactions. Translate

moles into grams (weight) or moles into liters (volume of gas).

(4) Volume relationships in chemical reactions. Translate

liters into moles.
Section 2.2: Using balanced chemical equations

Combustion of a hydrocarbon (compounds that contain C and H atoms only):

Hydrocarbon + Oxygen -> Carbon dioxide + Water

? CxHy + ? O2 -> ? CO2 + ? H2O

What is the balanced chemical equation for complete combustion of C4H10?

? C4H10 + ? O2 -> ? CO2 + ? H2O

Answer (by inspection):

2 C4H10 + 13 O2 -> 8 CO2 + 10 H2O

116.2 g C4H10 + 416.0 g O2 -> 352.1 g CO2 + 180.1 g H2O

Example of the law of mass balance.

116.2 g + 416.0 g = 352.1 g + 180.1 g = 532.2 g

REACTANTS PRODUCTS SAME MASS