AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES 2

ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND

PROPERTIES

PREPARED BY:
ENGR. NEBUCHADNEZZAR N. TIGLAO
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
Most or the major structural part of the aircraft
are made up of aluminum alloy materials
because of its high strength/ weight ratio.
Furthermore, the corrosion resistance
possessed by the aluminum is highly desirable
on aircraft structural design
 MATERIALS FOR SHEET METAL
AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION
• 1xxx — aluminum
• 2xxx — copper
• 3xxx — manganese
• 4xxx — silicon
• 5xxx — magnesium
• 6xxx — magnesium and silicon
• 7xxx — zinc
• 8xxx — other elements
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
AIRCRAFT METALS
Aluminum alloys
Pure aluminum is a relatively low strength
extremely flexible metal with virtually no
structural applications. However, when alloyed
with other metals its properties are
improved significantly.
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
ALLOYING
- Done by combining a metal into other metals
or non metals THAT OFTEN EXCHANGE ITS
PROPERTIES.
- Alloying is also done to improve the physical
properties of the metal
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
ALUMINUM
- Light and strong, high resistant in corrosion, it
is silvery white, soft, non magnetic ductile
metal
- BAUXITE (an aluminum ore)
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
ALUMINUM ALLOY
Aluminum + other metals from alloys = ALUMINUM ALLOY
- Can be use in the construction of SKIN OF
AIRCRAFT

NOTE: PURE ALUMINUM HAS A TENSILE

STRENGTH OF 13,000 psi.
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
COPPER
- Soft, malleable, ductile, metal with high
thermal and electrical conductivity
- The first metal discovered and alloyed to
produced BRONZE
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
MAGNESIUM
- Light weight metal
- Lowest melting and boiling point

MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
-has good casting characteristics
- Embodies FIRE HAZARDS
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
IRON
-the most common element on earth
IRON ORE EXTRACTION
-it is the extraction of hematite on the earth to
turn it into an iron and doing BLAST FURNACE
to separate a refine iron from other substance
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
IRON PROCESSES
Carbon + Iron = Carbon Steel

Carbon Steel
-base of alloy steel combining Carbon Steel to
other elements
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
LOW CARBON STEEL
- Used to make nails, skin of cars
- 0.25% of carbon
- Low in strenght
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
HIGH CARBON
- 0.5-1.5% Carbon
- High in strength
- Used to manufacture tools

NOTE: LOW AND HIGH CARBON ARE LOW IN

CORROSION RESISTANT
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
SPARK TESTING
- Testing used to identify ferrous materials to
non-ferrous materials
FERROUS MATERIALS
-they have iron as principal constituent
NON-FERROUS MATERIALS
- They have elements other than iron
 FERROUS
• 1XXX CAR - carbon
• 2XXX NI – nickel
• 3XXX NI – nickel chromium
• 4XXX CHRO – chromium
• 5XXX CHRO – chromium molybdenum
• 6XXX CHRO – chromium vanadium
• 8XXX NA – national emergency
• 9XXX SI - silicon
 NON-FERROUS
• 1xxx AL — aluminum -
• 2xxx CO — copper
• 3xxx MAG — manganese
• 4xxx SI — silicon
• 5xxx MAG— magnesium
• 6xxx MAG — magnesium and silicon
• 7xxx ZI — zinc
• 8xxx — other elements
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
CHROMIUM STEEL
- High in hardness, strength, corrosion resistant
-adaptable for heat treated forgings
-used on balls and rollers of antifriction bearings
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
CHROME NICKEL (STAINLESS STEEL)
-stainless steel chromium is the principal alloy
18-8 steel – the steel that is used for AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION due to its high corrosion
resistant
(18% Chromium and 5% Nickel)
• MATERIAL USED FOR TURBINE BLADES AND
EXHAUST DUCT
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
CHROME-VANADIUM STEEL
-18% vanadium 1% chromium
- When heat treated it resembles a high
strength, high toughness, and high resistant
to wear and fatigue properties
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
INCONEL (NICKEL CHROMIUM ALLOY)
- Closely resembles stainless steel
- Can also used in exhaust because of its
High tensile strength, high resistant to salt water
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
TITANIUM (EXPENSIVE)
- High melting point
- Low in density
- High in strength
- High corrosion resistant
- Found in almost living things
• Used in WAR PLANES, JET ENGINES, LANDING
GEARS, BODY OF AIRCRAFT, COMPRESSOR DISK,
COMPRESSOR BLADES AND VANES, TURBINE
HOUSING
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
METAL WORKING PROCESS
COLD WORKING
-plastic deformation of metal below
recrystallization temperature.

HOT WORKING
-deformation of metal above recrystallization
temperature
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
(COLD WORKING VS HOT WORKING)
COLD WORKING
• Below recrystallization
temperature (so when deformed
can’t be recovered)
• Hardening is not eliminated
• Decreases elongation while it
increases ULTIMATE TENSILE
STRENGTH, YEILD POINT, FATIGUE
STRENGTH, AND HARDNESS
• uniformity of material lost
properties affected
• High possibility of crack
• Residual and internal stresses
developed
HOT WORKING
• Above recrystallization
temperature (simultanious
deformation and recovery)
• Hardening is eliminated
• High elongation arc and impact
values, and ULTIMATE TENSILE
STRENGTH, HARDNESS AND
RESISTANCE TO CORROSION
UNAFFECTED
• Uniformity of material maintain
properties reserved
• Cracks and blow holes welded up
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
(METAL WORKING PROCESS)
EXTRUSION
-process used to create objects of a fixed cross
sectional profile
-a material is pushed through a die of desired
cross section
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
(METAL WORKING PROCESS)
HEAT TREATMENT
-A CONTROLLED PROCESS use to alter the
microstructure of metals and alloys such as
steel and aluminum
-involves series of operations of heating and
cooling the metal
VIDEO
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
(METAL WORKING PROCESS)
ANNEALING
- Heat treatment process whereby a metal is
heated at SPECIFIC TEMPERATURE and then
COOLED SLOWLY, this softens the metals can
be cut or shaped eaily
- Cooled by still air
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
(METAL WORKING PROCESS)
HARDENING
- Metallurgical process used to increase the
hardness of metal
- Heat steel to a temperature then cooling it
rapidly by putting it into oil, water, brine
TEMPERING
- Reduces brittleness imparted by hardening, it softens
the steel
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
(METAL WORKING PROCESS)
NORMALIZING
- Removes the internal stresses set up by heat
treating, welding, casting, forming. If stress is
not controlled it will lead to failure
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
(METAL WORKING PROCESS)
QUENCHING
- Rapid way of bringing a metal back to room
temperature after heat treatment
QUENCHING MEDIA
Brine (10-15% saltwater) – fastest cooling rate
Water – moderate cooling
Oil – slowest cooling rate
Liquid Nitrogen – very fast cooling rate
NOTE: TOO RAPID COOLING CAUSE CRACKING
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
(METAL WORKING PROCESS)
AGING (PRECIPITATION HARDENING)
- A heat treatment technique used to increase
the YIELD STRENGTH of malleable materials
• Creates high tensile strength and hardness
• Improves Wear resistance
• Reduce ductility
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
(METAL WORKING PROCESS)
CASE HARDENING
- Produces a hard wearing-resistant surface or case
over a strong, tough core.
- Ideal for parts that required wear resistance
surface
- Most be tough to carry an internal applied loads
• CARBURIZING
- Case hardening process which carbon is added to
the surface of low carbon steel
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
(METAL WORKING PROCESS)
CARBURIZING METHOD
PACK CARBURIZING
- Steel parts pack in a container with charcoal or
other material rich in carbon. Then sealed in a
fire clay then place in a furnace then heated
and soaked at 1700 degF for several hour
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
(METAL WORKING PROCESS)
CARBURIZING METHOD
GAS CARBURIZING
- Material rich in carbon is introduce in a furnace
atmosphere, the carburizing atmosphere is
produce by use of various gases or by burning
oil wood.
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
(METAL WORKING PROCESS)
CARBURIZING METHOD
LIQUID CARBURIZING
- Steel placed in a molten salt bath that contains
the chemical required to produce a case
comparable with one resulting from pack or
gas carburizing
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
(METAL WORKING PROCESS)
CARBURIZING METHOD
NITRIDING
- Part is placed in a nitriding furnace and heated
at 1000degF
 AIRCRAFT COMPOSITE
COMPOSITE
- Composition of two different materials
namely MATRIX and REINFORCEMENT
- Mostly combination of PLASTIC and FIBERS
- Non chemical combination of materials
produces strength that is much greater than
when they are separated.
FIBER + REISIN = FIBER COMPOSITE MATRIX
 AIRCRAFT COMPOSITE
ELEMENTS OF COMPOSITE STRUCTURE
FIBER / REINFORCEMENT – “PALAMAN”
RESIN / MATRIX – “COATING”
 AIRCRAFT COMPOSITE
REINFORCEMENT
- Add rigidity and impends crack propagation
• Glass fiber – form when thin strands of SILICA-BASED
arc extruded into many fibers with smaller diameter
NOTE: COMMONLY USED IN A/C
E-GLASS – used for glass reinforced plastic and fiberglass
reinforcement material that has high resistivity
S-GLASS – high tensile strength
• It is the fibers that carry the strength in a composite
structure, and a 60:40 fiber to resin ratio provides the
best strength.
 AIRCRAFT COMPOSITE
ARAMID FIBER (KEVLAR)
- Man made high performance fibers with
molecules characterize by relatively rigid polymer,
molecules are linked by strong hydrogen bonds
that transfer mechanical stress very efficient.
- Kevlar is an aramid fiber that is noted for its
flexibility and high tensile strength. It does not
conduct electricity, and does not cause aluminum
to corrode when it is held in contact with it.
 AIRCRAFT COMPOSITE
ADVANTAGE OF ARAMIC FIBER
- high strength
- Resistance from abrasion (damage caused by
rubbing)
- Resistance from Organic Solvents
- Non-conductive
- No melting point
- Low flammability
- Good fabric integrity @ elevated temperature
 AIRCRAFT COMPOSITE
CARBON FIBER
- “SUPER HERO” of materials world
- One of the STRONGEST and LIGHT WEIGHT
material
 AIRCRAFT COMPOSITE
CHARACTERISTICS OF CARBON FIBER
- High stiffness and strength (difficult to bend)
- Light weight
- Corrosion resistant
- X-ray transparent
- Low CTE (coefficient of thermal expansion)
- Chemical resistant
- Thermal and electrical conductivity
 AIRCRAFT COMPOSITE
BIO COMPOSITE
- Material formed by matrix + a natural fiber
reinforcement
• Characteristics
Renewable
Low energy consumption during process
Easy availability
Low cost
Low density
Good acoustic and insulation property
Safer in handling
 AIRCRAFT COMPOSITE
REISIN / MATRIX
- It holds everything together
CLASSIFICATION
Thermoplastic
– commonly unreinforced
- high working temperature
- capable of softening or flowing when
reheated
 AIRCRAFT COMPOSITE
CORE MATERIALS
HONEY COMB – lighter and strong
 AIRCRAFT COMPOSITE
PROCESS IN COMPOSITE
WET LAY UP
- Dry fabric is impregnated with resin

It is the fibers that carry the strength in a composite

structure, and a 60:40 fiber to resin ratio provides
the best strength.
 AIRCRAFT COMPOSITE
PREPREG (thermoplastic)
- Fabric or tape impregnated to resin during
manufacturing process
 AIRCRAFT COMPOSITE
KEY TERMS
FIBER ORIENTATION
- Strength and stiffness of a composite build up
LAMINATED STRUCTURE
- Layers of composite overlapping each other
ADHESIVE
- Used to joined multiple layers of composite “pandikit”
POT LIFE
- The length of time a catalyzed resin will remain in a
workable state is called its pot life.
 CURING OF COMPOSITES
CURE CYCLE
- Is a TIME/ TEMPERATURE/ PRESSURE cycle
used to cure a thermosetting resin or prepreg
CURING
- Can be done without application of heat
- Aided by vacuum bagging to removed trapped
air
 CURING OF COMPOSITES
ROOM TEMPERATURE CURING
- Often used for wet layups
- Let it dry in room temperature
 CURING OF COMPOSITES
ELEVATED TEMPERATURE CURING
- All PREPREG materials used elevated temperature
curing
• RAMP UP
- Heating device ramps up at a set temperature
• Hold Soak
- Heating device maintaining temperature
• Cool down
- Heating device cools down at set temperature
 COMPOSITE STRUCTURE REPAIR
1. Inspect the damage (NDT: tap test, X-ray)
2. Remove water from damage area
3. Remove damage (cut in oval or circular shape)
4. Prepare the damage area (sand paper the area)
5. Installation of honeycomb core (wet layup)
6. Prep and install repair piles
7. Vacuum bag the repair
8. Curing the repair
9. Post repair inspection