ENGINEERING MATERIALS

• All engineers are involved with materials on a

daily basis in:
• Manufacturing and processing
• Design and construction of components or structures
• Engineers must be able to:
• Select materials
• Use materials in appropriate applications
• Analyse the failure of a material
 OBJECTIVE
Course is designed to help student become aware of types
of:
• engineering materials that are available
• Understand their general behaviour and limitations
when used
• Recognize effects of environment and service conditions
on anticipated performance
• Ultimately, student will be able to design reliable
systems and processes that utilize a wide spectrum of
engineering materials
CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING
MATERIALS IS IN FIVE GROUPS
• METALS
• CERAMICS
• POLYMERS
• SEMI-CONDUCTORS
• COMPOSITES
The difference between each group is due the
different structural units that make up the materials,
hence the properties they exhibit
The selection of an engineering material having
the desired properties and the potential to be
manufactured economically and safely into a
useful product is a complicated process that
involves a knowledge of the

structure-property-processing relationship
PROCESSING-STRUCTURE-PROPERTY
RELATIONSHIP
Material Processing
Method

Material Internal Engineering

Structure Material Property
 METALLIC MATERIALS
METALS ALLOYS
Metals comprise single Alloys comprise two or
metal elements more single elements in
solid solution
– Iron (Fe) – Steel (Fe, C, Si, Mn)
– Aluminium (Al) – Brass (Cu, Zn)
– Magnesium (Mg) – Cast iron (Fe, C)
– Zinc (Zn) – Stainless steel (Fe, Cr, Ni)
– Copper (Cu)
– Titanium (Ti)
– Nickel (Ni)
 Metals and Alloys

Material and Applications Desirable properties

Copper • High electrical conductivity
• Electrical conductor wire • Good formability

• Castable , machinable
Grey Cast iron
• Vibration-damping
• Automobile engine block
• Cheap

Alloy steels • Significantly strengthened by

• Wrenches heat-treatment
 CERAMICS
Material and Applications Properties
SiO2-Na2O-CaO • Optically transparent
• Window glass • Thermal insulating

Al2O3; MgO; SiO2 • Thermal insulating

• Refractories for containing molten • Resistant to high temperature
metal • Relatively inert to molten metal

Barium titanate
• Transducers for audio equipment • Converts sound to electricity
(Piezoelectric behaviour)
 POLYMERS
Material and Application Desirable Properties
Polyethylene • Easily formed into thin
• Food packaging flexible, airtight film

Epoxy • Electrically insulating and

• Encapsulation of integrated moisture resistant
circuits

Phenolics • Strong, moisture resistant

• adhesives for joining plies
 SEMICONDUCTORS
Materials and Applications Desirable Properties
Silicon • Unique electrical behaviour
• Transistors and integrated
circuits

• GaAs • Converts electrical signal to

• Fibre optic systems light
 COMPOSITES
Materials and Applications
Graphite-epoxy
• Aircraft components
Tungsten carbide-cobalt
• Carbide cutting tools for
machining
Titanium-clad steel
• Reactor vessels
Desired Properties
• High strength-to-weight ratio
• High hardness combined with
good shock resistance
• Combines low cost and high
strength of steel with excellent
corrosion resistance of titanium
 METALS AND ALLOYS
Metals and their alloys (steels, aluminium, zinc, copper, nickel,
titanium, cast iron) generally have
– Good electrical and thermal conductivity
– Relatively high strength and stiffness
– Good ductility and or formability
– Good shock resistance
– Moderate temperature resistance
Metals are particularly useful for structural or load bearing applications
– Pure metals occasionally used as engineering materials
– Most applications involve alloys (combination of one or more metals to
provide an improvement in the desired property)
 CERAMICS
• These include brick, glass, tableware, refractory and
abrasive materials possessing low electrical and
thermal conductivity.
• Ceramics are generally used as insulators
• While ceramic materials are strong and hard, they
inherently very brittle, thus have limited load bearing
applications
• Most commercial applications include high temperature
and corrosive environments
 POLYMERS
• Polymers include rubber, plastics, and many types of adhesives
• They are produced by creating large molecular structures from simple
organic molecules in a process referred to as polymerization.
• Polymers have poor electrical and thermal conductivity; low strength
and are not suitable for use at high temperatures.
• Thermoplastic polymers have long molecular chains that are not
rigidly connected, hence have good formability
• Thermosetting polymers have molecular chains that are tightly linked,
hence are strong and more brittle.
• Polymers are used in many applications including water reticulation
and electrical devices
 SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors possess unique electrical and optical properties that make
them essential communication devices.

Although silicon. Germanium and a number of compounds such gallium

arsenide (GaAs) are very brittle, they are essential for electronic, computer
and other communication applications.

Electrical conductivity of semiconductors can be controlled to enable their use

in electronic devices such transistors, diodes and integrated circuits

Light transmission through fibre-optic systems in which electrical signal is

converted to light and vice-versa is yet another application
 COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Composites are formed from two or more materials to produce
properties not found in any single material.
Concrete, plywood and fibreglass are typical examples of composite
materials
Composite materials can be:
• light weight, very strong, very stiff and high temperature resistant
material
• Hard, yet shock resistant, cutting tools that would otherwise shatter
Advanced aircraft and aerospace vehicles rely heavily on composites
such as carbon-fibre reinforced polymers and Kelvar reinforced
polymers
 STRUCTURE-PROPERTY-PROCESSING
RELATIONSHIP
An engineering component must have proper shape
to perform its tasks for the expected campaign
period.
Materials engineer is should be able to meet this
requirement by taking advantage of a complex
three-part relationship between:
• Internal structure of material
• Processing method applied to material
• Desired final properties of the material
 Material Property
For us to determine the characteristics of an
engineering material, we should concern ourselves
mainly with two important aspects, namely:

• Mechanical property
• Physical property
Mechanical Property
• Describe a material’s responds to:
– an applied force (strength and ductility)
– a sudden intense blow (impact)
– a continuous but alternating applied and compressive forces
(fatigue)
– an applied force at elevated temperature (creep)
– abrasive conditions (wear)
• Mechanical properties determine deformation characteristics
during fabrication of a component
 Strength values for different
categories of engineering materials
METALS
Cobalt
COMPOSITES High strength steel
Carbon
epoxy Alloy steel
Cu-Be alloy
Kelvar epoxy Nickel alloy
CERAMICS Titanium alloy
Strength

SiC P Boron
Polyimide Cu-Zn Brass
Si3N4
Carbon Aluminium alloy
ZrO2 Polyimide
POLYMER Zinc alloy
S
PEEK Al2O3 Glass
Nylon Polyester
Polyethylene Lead
Physical Property
• Describe a material’s characteristics with respect:
– Electrical conductivity
– Magnetism
– Optical
– Elasticity
– Chemical degradation
• All the above are strongly influenced by the materials internal structure (metals
and alloys in particular).
– Electrical conductivity in semiconductors, for example, can change
significantly with small changes in structure
– Thermal insulation of ceramics is reduced by high firing temp.
 Material Structure
Internal structure of a material is considered on
several levels:
– Electronic arrangement
– Atomic arrangement
– Grain structure
– Phase structure
 Electronic Arrangement
Electrons surrounding the nucleus of individual atoms
affect the following properties of a material:
– Electrical
– Magnetic
– Thermal
– Optical
Electronic arrangements also influence how atoms
are bonded to one another
 Atomic Arrangement
• Metals, semiconductors, many ceramics and some polymers
have regular atomic arrangement which we refer to as the
crystal structure.
• Other ceramic materials and many polymeric materials do
not have orderly atomic arrangement and are described as
amorphous or glassy materials
• Glassy polyethylene, for example, is transparent, whereas
crystalline polyethylene is translucent
• Imperfections in atomic arrangement may be controlled to
produce profound changes in properties of a material
 Grain Structure
• Grain structure is associated with metals,
semiconductors and ceramics.
• Size and shape of grains influences the materials
behaviour
• In exceptional cases (silicon chips for integrated circuits
or metals for jet engine parts), we can produce a single
grain or crystal of the desired material
• A collection of grains constitutes a material’s
microstructure (internal structure)
 Phase Structure
A phase may be regarded as a distinctive part of a
material’s microstructure in which each phase has a
unique atomic arrangement and properties.
By controlling the size, distribution and amount of the
different phases present within the main body of a
material, we can control the properties of a given
metal or alloy system
 MATERIAL PROCESSING
Material processing:
• Carried out to produce the desired shape of an engineering component from
the initial formless material.
Metals can be processed by:
• Pouring liquid metal into a mould (casting)
• Joining individual pieces of metal ( welding, brazing, soldering, adhesive
bonding)
• Forming solid metal into useful shapes using high pressure ( forging,
drawing, extrusion, rolling, bending )
• Compacting tiny metal powder particles into solid mass ( powder metallurgy)
• Machining to remove excess metal
 Material Processing by Compaction
Metals with high melting temperatures are difficult to produce using
conventional casting method, for example, tungsten.
A common technique for producing tungsten is by the powder
metallurgy process.
Powder particles of tungsten oxide (WO3), a ceramic material, are
heated in an atmosphere of hydrogen to produce tungsten metal
particles and H2O
Tungsten metal particles are consolidated (compacted) at high
temperature and pressure to produce a simple rod that can be wire-
drawn (forming process) to progressively smaller diameter until the
correct size is produced.
Ceramic material is formed into shape by:
– Casting
– Forming
– Extrusion
– Compaction
Process is usually carried out using wet material
followed by heat treatment (drying and firing) at
high temperature
Polymeric materials are produced by:
• Injection of softened plastic into moulds (much like
casting of molten metals)
• Drawing
• Forming
 Material Processing using Heat
treatment
A material (most metal alloy systems and some
ceramics) maybe heat treated at some temperature
below the melting temperature to effect the desired
change in structure
It is important to note that the type of processing
technique to be used depends, partly on the
properties – and thus the internal structure of the
material, and the desired shape of the engineering
component being produced.
 Effect Operational Environment on
Engineering Materials
Product of the Structure-Property-Processing
relationship is to a large extend influenced by the
working environment:
• Temperature
• Corrosion effects of the environment
 Temperature Effects
• Properties (mechanical and physical) of most engineering
materials are drastically altered by temperature changes.
• Metals whose strength related properties were improved by
heat treatment or forming techniques lose their strength
when heated.
• Whilst high temperatures cause structural changes in
ceramics, most polymers will either melt or char
• Extremely low temperatures will cause metals or polymer to
fail in a brittle manner even at low applied loads
Designing engineering materials with improved resistance
to high temperatures is important in aircraft and
aerospace vehicles:
Fast speeds cause results in increased heating of vehicle skin
due to friction with air.
At the same time, the engine operates efficiently at high
temperatures
New engineering materials able to withstand high engine
operational temperatures (Concorde aircraft and aerospace
vehicles) have now been developed
 Environmental Effects
• At elevated temperatures, most metals and polymeric
materials will react with oxygen or other gases present.
• Metals and ceramics can actually disintegrate
• Polymers may become brittle when exposed to UV light
• Engineering materials are also attacked by corrosive liquids
leading to premature failure.
• The materials engineer has the all important task of
selecting materials that are compatible with the operational
environment
 Principle of Engineering Materials
Design and Selection
Factors that must be considered when designing an
engineering material for a given application include the
following:
• Material must have desired mechanical and physical
properties
• Material must be capable of being processed or
manufactured into desired shape
• Material must provide economic solution to engineering
design problem