HOT FORGING

Hot forging is the most well-known forging process. It operates above a given metal’s recrystallization
temperature throughout the whole process in order to allow the forging to keep its newly-defined shape
after it cools down. This high-temperature process changes the grain structure of the workpiece by
breaking it down into finer grains. Heating a metal above its recrystallization or plastic deformation
temperature prevents strain hardening of the material. Hot forging can manufacture complex metal
designs that cooler forging processes cannot achieve at lower temperatures. This method not only
changes the physical appearance of the starting metal, but also increases its ductility and toughness as
a final product.
Hot Forging Temperature Range
Hot forging is typically conducted with metals that have a high formability ratio to prevent them from
being damaged in the deformation process. Some of these metals include carbon steel, titanium,
copper, aluminum alloys, and nickel alloys. There are some metals can only be hot forged due to their
tough physical properties. The recrystallization temperature of steel can range from 400 to 700°C, but
the hot forging temperature for steel can reach up to 1200°C. Once the forging is completely shaped,
a strict cooling process ensues in order to set the forging in its new shape. This cool down process
must be handled very carefully in order to prevent the forging from warping.
WARM FORGING
The warm forging process has characteristics similar to both hot forging and cold forging and it is the
most recently developed method of forging. This process takes place at a temperature above the work-
hardening temperature of the workpiece, but below the temperature at which scale formation takes
place. The lack of scale allows for the tolerances to be closer in the finished product.
Warm Forging Temperature Range
Depending on the physical properties of the individual workpiece, warm forging temperatures can
range from 650 and 1000°C.

COLD FORGING
Cold forging takes place at a temperature below the recrystallization temperature of a metal, oftentimes
at or near room temperature. Since cold forging is often conducted at much lower temperatures than
hot or warm forging, there is a greater resistance to deformation by the workpiece in this process.
Therefore, this process typically requires intermediate annealing steps in-between the deformation of
the workpiece to minimize strain hardening during the forging process. Annealing is a process that
strengthens a workpiece by heating it and then allowing it to slowly cool down in order to remove
internal stresses. Since the temperature of the cold forging process is near the hardening temperature
of the workpiece, scale formation due to reactions with atmospheric gases is not an issue in this
method. On the other hand, the workpiece is not as pliable during the deformation process as with
other methods, so greater press loads are needed in order to shape the workpiece.
Cold Forging Temperature Range
Cold forging techniques are known to have the best dimensional accuracy when compared to hotter
forging methods. This feature is due to the fact that the workpiece is deformed near the net-shape of
the final product. Cold forgings do not have to be cooled down after forging because they are already
made near their hardening temperatures. Hot and warm forgings can experience shrinkage as they
solidify, a phenomenon that is not an issue in cold forging. Although the workpiece remains in a solid
state in cold forging, the strain from friction between the workpiece and the machinery used to deform
it can cause the temperature of the workpiece to reach up to 250°C. As a result, the cold forging method
is typically used with softer metals such as aluminum, copper alloys, and low alloy steels that usually
weigh less than 50 pounds. Softer metals are easier to shape at lower temperatures and require less
forging pressures.
All metals creep under stress at high temperature and in their manufactured form, components may
deform. In fact for high temperature applications creep is generally the important criteria in the
selection of metals
Looking at the graph above the air cooled steel results in the finest grain structure and the best creep
strength. The slow cooled steel had about 20% ferrite in the structure. The quenched steels results in
course precipitates in the grain structure.
The effect of alloying on the long term creep resistance of steels is shown in the figure below.
Steels-Low Temperatures
At temperatures below -10°C typical steels become more brittle and the toughness is affected. Using
selected grades of carbon steel it is possible to operate at temperatures down to -40°C. At these low
temperatures it is necessary to conduct specific impact tests at low temperatures on the selected steel
to confirm suitability. Austentic stainless steels are generally suitable for applications down to, and
below, -40°C
Austenitic Stainless steel is particulary useful in cryogenic applications beacause of its high toughness
and strength at very low temperatures 304 (X10CrNi18-8 ) stainless steel can be readily employed to
handle liquid helium and liquid hydrogen (-268,9 and -252.7°C respectively). 9% nickel alloy steels
retain good notch ductility down to -196°C and have been used for manufacture of vessels holding
liquid oxygen and liquid methane(-182,9 and -161,5°C respectively).
Non-ferrous metals - Low Temperatures
Aluminum alloys are used for structural parts for operation at temperatures as low as ( -270°C ). Below
zero, most aluminum alloys show little change in properties, the yield and tensile strengths may
increase, elongation may decrease slightly and impact strength remains approximately constant.
Consequently, aluminum is useful material for many low-temperature applications.
Copper and copper alloys are widely used for refrigeration components operating at temperatures
down to -40°C.