SU

RV
EYI
FUNDAMENTALS
NG
OF
SURVEYING
SU Surveying, which has recently also
RV
EYI been interchangeably called
NG Geomatics, has traditionally been
defined as the science, art, and
technology of determining the
relative positions above, on, or
beneath the Earth’s surface, or of
establishing such points.
SU
What is the
RV
EYI importance of
NG

Surveying to
Civil
Engineers???
 The Early Days of
Surveying…
 1400 BC
Herodotus recorded that Sesostris divided
SU
the land of Egypt. The Egyptians first used it to
RV
EYI accurately divide land into plots for the use of
NG taxation.
 120 B.C.
Greeks developed the science of geometry
and were using it for precise land division.
Greeks also developed the first piece of
surveying equipment (Diopter). They
standardized procedures for conducting surveys
 The Early Days of
Surveying…
• 1800 A.D.
Beginning of the industrial revolution
SU The importance of “exact boundaries” and
RV the demand for public improvements (i.e.
EYI railroads, canals, roads) brought surveying into a
NG prominent position. More accurate instruments
were developed.
Science of Geodetic and Plane were
developed.
 Surveying Today…

SU Today surveying affects most everything in our

RV daily lives. A few of the areas where surveying
EYI is being used are:
NG
• To map the earth above and below the sea.
• Prepare navigational maps (land, air, sea).
• Establish boundaries of public and private
lands.
• Develop data bases for natural resource
management.
• Development of engineering data for bridge
construction, roads, buildings, land
 TWO MAIN DIVISIONS OF SURVEYING
 
SU The approximate shape of the earth can
RV
EYI best be defined as an oblate tri-axial
NG ovaloid. But most of the civil engineering
works, concern only with a small portion
of the earth which seems to be a plane
surface. Thus based upon the
consideration of the shape of the earth,
surveying is broadly divided into two
types:
Geodetic surveying
Plane surveying
 Plane Surveying
• All distances and
directions are
SU
horizontal;
RV
EYI • The direction of the
NG plumb line is the same
at all points within the
limits of the survey;
• All angles (both
horizontal and
vertical) are plane
angles;
• Elevations are with
reference to a datum.
 Geodetic Surveying

In this branch of surveying, the true shape of the

SU
earth is taken into consideration. This type of
RV
EYI surveying is being carried out for highly precise work
NG and is adopted for surveying of large area.
 CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYS
SU
RV CADASTRAL SURVEYS
EYI
NG CONSTRUCTION SURVEYS
HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
INDUSTRIAL SURVEYS
MINE SURVEYS
PHOTOGRAMMETRIC SURVEYS
ROUTE SURVEYS
TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS
 CADASTRAL SURVEYS

SU This type of surveys relates to laws of land

RV ownership. It includes establishment or
EYI reestablishment of real property boundaries,
NG
corners, and areas in rural and urban places.
 CONSTRUCTION
SURVEYS
SU
RV It is an essential part of
EYI construction that is
NG performed to establish
reference points and
markers that will guide
the construction. Often
called “stake-out”, “lay-
out” or “setting-out”.
 HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
This type includes mapping of bodies of water
such as lakes, rivers, etc. it also includes
SU
RV measurement of features such as discharge.
EYI
NG
 INDUSTRIAL SURVEYS

A sub-discipline of surveying which requires high

SU accuracy and precision. It includes alignment of
RV
EYI machineries and optical tooling.
NG
SU
RV
EYI
NG

MINE SURVEYS
The practice of measuring and mapping on-ground
or underground points for the purpose of exploiting
and utilizing mineral deposits.
SU
RV
EYI
NG

PHOTOGRAMMETRIC SURVEYS

Obtains reliable spatial information from

photographic images (may it be aerial or
terrestrial).
 ROUTE SURVEYS
Provides the data needed to determine horizontal and
SU
vertical alignment, and even earthwork quantities, for
RV
EYI the design of linear structures such as roads, railways,
NG pipelines, etc.
 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS
Survey method that are used to map natural and/or
SU man-made features on the ground as well as obtain
RV elevations.
EYI
NG
SU
RV Errors
EYI
NG
in Measurement
 Differrence between Error and Mistake???

SU
RV ERRORS MISTAKES
EYI
Difference between true value Due to carelessness,
NG
and the observed value inattention, poor
Often beyond control of the judgement, and improper
one performing the operation execution
Inherent in all measurements
Also caused by a
which cannot be avoided
misunderstanding,
Maybe caused by the type of
inexperience, or
equipment, imperfections of
senses indiference of the
surveyor.
 Sources of errors in making observations:
SU
RV  Natural errors
EYI  Instrumental errors
NG
 Personal errors
 TYPES OF OBSERVATION
SU SYSTEMATIC/CUMULATIVE ERRORS
RV
EYI Errors resulting from the observer, the
NG instrument, and the environment. The nature of
this type of error is cumulative meaning it tends
to increase in magnitude so long as the condition
remains constant.
ACCIDENTAL/RANDOM ERRORS
These are errors beyond the control of the
surveyor. They are probabilistic in nature and
often tends to cancel out. They are still present
even after systematic errors and mistakes have
 PRECISION AND ACCURACY
PRECISION refers to the degree of consistency of a group
SU of observations.
RV
EYI ACCURACY refers to the closeness of a measurement to its
NG true value.
 Eliminating Mistakes and Systematic Errors
SU  Compare several observations and identify mistakes
RV (cast out or repeat).
EYI  Repetitive observations can minimize mistakes.
NG
 Systematic errors can be calculated and proper
corrections applied to the observations.
 MOST PROBABLE VALUE
As discussed, no observation is completely free from
SU error hence, the true of an observation ,must be
RV represented by a value assumed to be close to it. This
EYI value is called the most probable value and is taken
NG
as,
 Residual/Deviation
The difference between an observation x and the
most probable value
SU
RV  
EYI
NG  
Residual and errors are theoretically identical. The
only difference is that residuals can be calculated
whereas errors cannot.
 PROBABLE ERROR
 
Defines a quantity which when added to or subtracted from the most
probable value defines a range within there is a 50% chance that the true
SU value of the measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the limit thus set.
RV  
EYI Above is the normal distribution curve. The total area under the curve is 1.0
NG or 100%. The area bounded is denser at the center getting less and less
dense as it moves away.
If we define a region symmetric about the center that has a total area of 0.50
or 50%, the region will be bounded by z = -0.6745 and z = +0.6745 which is
the basis of the coefficient used in calculating the probable error.
 PROBABLE ERROR OF ANY SINGLE OBSERVATION
 

SU  
RV PROBABLE ERROR OF THE MEAN
EYI
NG  
RELATIVE PRECISION
The ratio of the magnitude of the error to the magnitude of
the measured value.
 INTERRELATIONSHIP OF ERRORS
The following shows the algorithm used when values with known errors are
added or multiplied
 
SU 1. SUMMATION OF ERRORS
RV When measurements of known probable errors are added, the probable
EYI error of the sum is given by
NG
2. PRODUCT OF ERROR
When measurements of known probable errors are multiplied, the
probable error of the product is given by

WEIGHTED OBSERVATION
Many surveying measurements are made under different circumstances
and conditions and therefore have different degrees of reliability. The
weight is directly proportional to the number of observations or
measurements.
 Example Problem
The following values were determined in a series of
SU tape measurements of a line: 1000.58, 1000.40,
RV 1000.38, 1000.48, 1000.40, and 1000.46 meters.
EYI Determine the ff.:
NG
a.Most probable value of the measured length
b.Probable error of a single measurement and
probale error of the mean
c.Final expression for the most probable length
d.Relative precision of the measurement
 Given the following data in measuring a distance of a
certain line.
SU Distance No. of Measurements
RV
47.23m 3
EYI
NG 47.21 2
47.19 4
47.27 2
1. Determine the most probable value of the
measurements.
2. Calculate the probable error of any single
observation
3. Calculate the probable error of the mean
4. Determine the relative error or precision of the
 CONVERSION TABLE FOR SOME UNITS USED IN SURVEYING
1 acre 4047 m2
1 chain 100 links = 4 rods = 66 f
SU 1 cubit 18 inches
RV 1 furlong 40 rods
EYI 1 knot 6080 f = 1 nautical mile
NG 1 link 0.66 f
1 mile (nautical mile) 6080 f = 8 furlongs
1 mile (statute mile) 5280 f
1 military pace 2.5 f
1 perch 1 pole = 1 rod = 25 links
1 pin 100 links = 1 tape length
1 section 640 acres
1 tally 10 pins
1 township 36 sections
1 vara 33 inches
1 yard 3f
 PACING
Pacing is one of the simpliest method of measuring
SU distances. It is used in instances where
RV approximate results can be enough for the data
EYI
NG needed.