GROUP GOALS, SOCIAL

INTERDEPENDENCE, AND TRUST

Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills

11th Edition
David W. Johnson
Frank P. Johnson
 What are Group Goals?

People want to achieve goals they are

unable to achieve by themselves 
they form group
But do group goals exist in and of
themselves?
Or are group goals the combination of
individual members’ goals? What do
you think?

Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11e. 3-2
© 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Commitment to Group Goals

Group goals need to be

S – Specific
T – Trackable and measurable
A – Achievable but challenging
R – Relevant
T -- Transfer
2. Involve group members in the process of forming goals –
ownership

Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11e. 3-3
© 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Operational Goals

Specific steps to achieving goals are clear and identifiable

Observable, countable, and specific indicators will make it
evident when the goal has been achieved
Advantages:
• Better communication among group members
• Guidance in planning and carrying out group tasks
• Help for the group in evaluating both the group process and
the group product
• Rational conflict resolution

Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11e. 3-4
© 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 How to Set Effective Group Goals?

Look for and recognize hidden agendas

Accept that they are legitimate and must be worked on
Survey-feedback method
Program evaluation and review, or critical path method

Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11e. 3-5
© 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Social Interdependence Theory

Social interdependence exists when

individuals share common goals, and
each individual’s outcomes are
affected by the actions of the others.
The type of interdependence structured
in a situation determines how
individuals interact with each other
Social interdependence is different
from social dependence and social
independence.

Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11e. 3-6
© 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Cooperative Competitive Individualistic

Inter- Positive Negative None

dependence

Interaction patterns Promotive Oppositional None

Effort to achieve High Low Low

Relationship Positive Negative No relationships

Psychological health Psychological health Psychological illness Psychological

pathology

Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11e. 3-7
© 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Types of Positive Interdependence

Goal interdependence
Celebration/reward interdependence
Resources interdependence
Role interdependence
Identity interdependence
Environmental interdependence
Fantasy interdependence
Task interdependence
Outside enemy interdependence

Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11e. 3-8
© 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Research on the Effects of Cooperation (Metaanalysis), Compared to
Competition and Individualistic Efforts

Efforts to achieve and produce

Quality of relationships
Psychological adjustment and competence
Effect sizes are significantly higher for methodologically high
quality studies of pure cooperation (as opposed to mixtures of
cooperative, competitive and individualistic efforts)

Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11e. 3-9
© 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Efforts to Achieve and Produce

Cooperation, compared to competition and individualistic efforts, leads to

Intrinsic motivation, high expectations for success
Greater effort to achieve
Long term retention
Higher level reasoning and critical thinking
Creative thinking – process gain
Group-to-Individual transfer of learning
Positive attitudes towards the task
More time on task
More positive cross-ethnic relationships

Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11e. 3-10
© 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Quality of Relationships

More liking among individuals 

Stronger group cohesion 

• Absenteeism and turnover of membership decrease

• Feeling of personal responsibility to the group
• Willingness to listen and be influenced by colleagues
• Commitment to each other’s professional growth and success
• Social support

Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11e. 3-11
© 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Psychological Adjustment and Competence

Individualistic attitudes are related to a number of indices of pathological psychology.

• Basic self-rejection
• Egocentrism
Competitiveness is related to a mixture of healthy and unhealthy characteristics.
• Conditional self-esteem
• Egocentrism
Cooperativeness is positively related to
• Emotional maturity
• Well-adjusted social relations
• Strong personal identity
• Ability to cope with adversity
• Social competencies
• Basic trust and optimism about people
• Self-confidence, independence and autonomy
• High self-esteem
• Increased perspective taking skills

Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11e. 3-12
© 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Effort to achieve

Psychological Quality of
health relationships

Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11e. 3-13
© 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Under What Conditions are Competitive
Efforts Effective?

Broader context is cooperative

Between groups (not individuals)
Task: nondivisible, well-practiced
Evenly matched competing teams
Winning is of no great importance

Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11e. 3-14
© 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Under What Conditions Are Individualistic Efforts
Effective?

Broader context is cooperative

Goal perceived as important, relevant, worthwhile
Individuals expect to be successful
Task is simple, achievable, clear

Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11e. 3-15
© 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 The Basic Elements of Cooperation

Positive interdependence – sink or swim together

• Outcome interdependence
• Mean interdependence
Individual accountability
Promotive interaction
Social skills
Group processing

Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11e. 3-16
© 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Development of Cooperative Relationships

Durable and frequent interactions – more at stake in the future

than in the present
Recognition ability
Emotional investment in the other group members
Tit-for-tat strategy
Avoiding the temptation to exploit other group members’
cooperation

Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11e. 3-17
© 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Distribution of Rewards

Equity/merit view – Homans (1961)

Equality system of distributive justice
According to need
When the method of distribution is not perceived as just
by all group members  low morale, high conflict

Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11e. 3-18
© 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Social Interdependence and the Real
World

All three types of interdependence exist simultaneously

and continuously.
When a competitive person joins a cooperative group
• Interaction pattern among group members becomes
competitive
• Newcomer is not aware of the change, only the group
members

Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11e. 3-19
© 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Deutsch’s Definition of Trust

An aspect of relationship  Dynamic

To trust someone always involves risk
The consequences of trusting can be
• beneficial or
• harmful
depending on the actions of the other person!
The feared harmful consequences (the possible loss) are more
severe than the hoped beneficial outcomes (the possible gain)
If you trust, you feel relatively confident that beneficial
consequences will result

Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11e. 3-20
© 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 The Dynamics of Interpersonal Trust

Person B

High acceptance, support Low acceptance, support and

cooperativeness

Person A Trusting Person A Trusting

P High Confirmed Disconfirmed

Openness
e and Sharing Person B Trustworthy Person B Untrustworthy
r Confirmed No risk
s Person A Distrusting Person A Distrusting
o
n No risk No risk
Low
A Openness Person B Trustworthy Person B Untrustworthy
and Sharing

Disconfirmed No risk

Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11e. 3-21
© 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Trusting and Trustworthiness

Trust
• Willing to risk beneficial or harmful consequences by making oneself
vulnerable to other people
• Openness
• Sharing
• Support
• Acceptance
Trustworthiness
• Willingness to respond to another person’s risk taking in a way that
the other person will experience beneficial consequences
• Accepting and supporting ≠ agreeing

Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11e. 3-22
© 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Destroying Trust

Just one betrayal is enough to destroy trust, BUT

Distrust is extremely resistant to change
3 types of behavior that will decrease trust:

• Rejection, ridicule or disrespect as a response to the other

person’s disclosure
• Not reciprocating openness
• Refusing to disclose your thoughts after the other person
expressed acceptance, support and cooperative intentions

Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11e. 3-23
© 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 How Can I Reestablish Trust That Was Lost?

Establish superordinate goals – goals that are compelling and can only be
achieved by cooperation
Increase resource interdependence
Express cooperative intentions
Always keep your word
Be absolutely and consistently trustworthy
“Test the waters” – make yourself vulnerable to the other person
Apologize sincerely
Build a tough but fair reputation

Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11e. 3-24
© 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Trusting As A Personality Trait

Though trust is a quality of the relationship, not that of the person,

some people are more willing to trust than others.
Interpersonal Trust Scale – Rotter (1971)
High trusters are
• More trustworthy
• More likely to give others a 2nd chance, to be liked and sought
out as friends
• Less likely to lie and be unhappy, conflicted or maladjusted

Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11e. 3-25
© 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Summary

Independence (individual work)

Interdependence structured in the situation

• Positive – cooperation
• Negative – competition
Cooperation

• Positive interdependence
• Individual accountability
• Face-to-face promotive interaction
• Social skills
• Group processing

Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11e. 3-26
© 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved