CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY {KMT 401T}

DR O. S ABIOLA
 BITUMEN
• Bituminous – bitumen or tar
• Bitumen – natural or fractional distillation of crude oil
• Tar – destructive distillation of bituminous coal or cracking petroleum
vapours, wood tar, mineral tar (bituminous shale)
• Quality and quantity depends on the crude oil source and refining method
• Composition:
molecular weight wise, bitumen is a mixture of about 300-2000 chemical
components, with an average of around 500-700.
- elementally, it is around 95% carbon and hydrogen (+/- 87% C & +/- 8% H), 5%
S, 1% N, 1% O and 2000ppm metals.
- compose of highly condensed polycyclic aromatic & hydrocarbons
Chemical components in bitumen are:
- Asphaltenes
- Resinous components (polar aromatics)
- Non-polar aromatics (naphtene aromatics)
‘ - Saturates
• Asphaltenes
- fairly high molecular weight, polar n-heptane insoluble solids
- black and glassy
- 5-25% of the bitumen
- contain carbon, hydrogen, some nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen
- asphaltene content has a significant influence on the rheological properties of
the bitumen. Increasing the asphaltene content produces a harder, more viscous
binder

• Maltenes
- maltenes are the n-heptane soluble phase of the bitumen
- separated into components broadly based on molecular mass and polarity
- consist of resins, aromatics and saturates
• Resins
- mostly hydrogen and carbon with small amounts of oxygen, sulphur and
nitrogen, (30-50% of the total bitumen)
 - dark brown solids or semi-solids act as a dispersing (peptising) agent for the
asphaltenes
- polar in natural-strongly adhesive
 Aromatics
- dark brown, low molecular weight, viscous fluids making up 40-65% of the total
bitumen
- a high dissolving ability for other, high molecular weight hydrocarbons
- aromatic content of the bitumen determines to a significant extent its
compatibility with polymers used for modification
 Saturates
- straw coloured or white, viscous oils with a molecular weight similar to that of
aromatics
- contain both waxy and non-waxy saturates and make up 55-20% of the bitumen
 Properties of Bitumen
• Adhesion – bitumen has the ability to adhere to a solid surface in a fluid state
depending on the nature of the surface. The presence of water on the surface will
prevent adhesion
• Resistance to water- bitumen is water resistant. Under some conditions water may
be absorbed by minute quantities of inorganic salts in the bitumen or filler in it
• Hardness – to measure the hardness of bitumen, the penetration test is
conducted, which measures the depth of penetration in tenths of mm. of the
weighted needle in bitumen after a given time, at known temperature. The
penetration is a measure of hardness
• Viscosity and flow – the viscous or flow properties of bitumen are of importance
both at high temperature during processing and application and at low
temperature to which bitumen is subjected during service. The flow properties of
bitumen vary considerably with temperature and stress conditions.
• The chemical constituents and structure play a major role in the behaviour of
bitumen
the effects are:
- aging; permanent deformation; fatigue; thermal effects; stripping & moisture
damage
 Testing of bitumen
• Bitumen are classified by their physical properties
• Different tests for different types of bitumen
- penetration
- viscosity
- softening point
- flash point
- solubility
- ductility
SHRP – Strategic Highway Research Program – Superpave (Superior
Performance Asphalt Pavements) -
 Types of Bitumen
• Cutback bitumen- are penetration of bitumen that have been diluted with
an appropriate solvent to reduce their viscosity. Cutbacks are classified by
their kinematic viscosity at 600C. The type of solvent used is associated
with this, either medium curing (MC)- kerosene; rapid curing (RC) –
paraffin or naphtha; slow curing (SC) – diesel.
• the lower limit of the viscosity range is used in the grade designation,
while the upper limit is double this lower figure, e.g. MC30 has viscosity at
600C in the range of 30 – 60 cSt (centistokes).
• Evaporation of solvent leaves primary (base) binder

• Penetration grade bitumen – SABS 307 – based on bitumen grade based

on penetration and on their properties. The grade corresponds to the
allowable penetration range; i.e. the penetration of a 40-50 grade must be
in the range of 40 to 50.
- indication of hardness based on penetration test
- used as primary binder or base of all other bitumen
• Modified bitumen – conventional bitumen are not always suitable for all
applications thus requires improvement in their rheological properties.
- increase the elastic component with an associated reduction in the
viscous component and
- stiffening of the bitumen to reduce the total viscoelastic response of the
layer
Modification is achieved by the introduction of polymers, crumb rubber
aliphatic synthetic wax or naturally occurring hydrocarbons.
 Polymer modification
- polymer can be grouped into:
- elastomers (thermoplastic elastomers) for improving the strength &
elastic properties of a binder
- plastomers (thermoplastic polymers) for increasing the viscosity of
the bitumen
• Many properties of the bitumen that can be improved include the
following:
- durability
- aggregate retention due to higher binder viscosity and adhesive
strength
- resistance to permanent deformation and fatigue cracking
- cohesion
- elasticity
- viscosity less susceptible to changes in temperature.
South Africa generally uses three types of elastomers – Styrene butadiene
rubber (SBR) latex; Styrene butadiene styrene (SBS); rubber crumb
One type of plastomer general in use – Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)
 Modified Bitumen
• Bitumen rubber – about 20% of rubber crumb is blended with bitumen at
170 - 2100C for approximately one hour
• The aromatics oils in the bitumen are absorbed by the rubber particles
causing them to swell
• The blend after mixing and reacting together is referred to as bitumen
rubber, which must be applied within six hours as the product has a
restricted shelf life
• It is much more viscous than virgin bitumen and is not a homogenous
binder. It requires special equipment for pumping and spraying
• It is widely used in South Africa in chip seals, continuously graded asphalt
and in semi-open graded wearing courses
• On cracked and flexible pavement, bitumen rubber has resisted crack
reflection remarkably well and, in spite of high application rates, its
resistance to flushing has been clearly demonstrated
• This resistance is due, amongst others, to its improved temperature
susceptibility of viscosity
• The carbon black contained in the rubber also act as an anti-oxidant,
thereby increasing the durability of the binder

Classification
- Type of application – seal; asphalt; crack sealant
- Type of modifier – elastomer; plastomer; rubber crumb; hydrocarbon
- Type of binder system – emulsion-the letter C follows directly after the
letter indicating the type of application
- Level of modification – A numerical value is used to indicate increasing
softening values (1 = low; 2 = high)
Examples : S-E1 – hot polymer modified bitumen (< 3% polymer); S-E2- hot
polymer modified (> 3% polymer); S- R-1 – rubber crumb hot modified binder
(20% rubber crumb); SC-E1- polymer modified emulsion (typically 5% SBR
polymer)
• Bitumen emulsion-dissolving bitumen in a solvent is dispersing the
bitumen in water as emulsion. In this process the bitumen is physically
broken down into micron-sized globules that are mixed into water
containing an emulsifying agent.
• Emulsifying bitumen typically consist of about 60% to 70% bitumen, 30%
to 40% water and a fraction of a percent of emulsifying agent
• Two-types – cationic and anionic
- cationic & anionic derive from the electrical charges on the bitumen
globules
- anionic emulsion has negatively charged bitumen particles
- cationic emulsion has emulsion has positively charged bitumen particles
- cationic emulsions are more widely used as they have superior adhesive
properties to a range of mineral aggregates
• Performance grading – using two numbers (average seven-day maximum
pavement temperature and the minimum pavement design temperature
likely to be experienced) e.g. PG 58-22 ( 58 – maximum pavement
temperature & -22 the expected minimum pavement temperature)
• Compliance of South Africa bitumen as per Superpave

40/50 60/70 80/100 150/200

X PG64-16 PG58-22 X
PG64-16 PG58-22 PG58-22 X
PG64-16 PG64-22 PG58-16 PG58-22
PG70-22 PG64-16 PG58-22 PG58-22
 Behaviour/Performance of bitumen
• Bitumen hardens with time
• The main mechanisms are: oxidation; loss of volatiles (volatilisation);
physical (steric) and exudation
• Oxidation – in contact with oxygen. The degree of oxidation depends on
temperature, thickness of binder films and time. Inadequate compaction of
asphalt layers or excessively thin binder films will advance the rate of oxidative
hardening during in-service life, especially in warmer climates. Hardening due to
oxidation is considered to be the main cause of ageing.
• Loss of volatiles – evaporation of volatiles depends mainly on the exposure to
sunlight and prevailing temperatures. Penetration grade bitumen, being relatively
involatile, are not prone to significant loss of volatiles
• Physical (steric) – physical hardening occurs at ambient temperatures and is
caused by the re-orientation of bitumen molecules and the formation of waxy
crystals. This type of hardening is reversible upon reheating
• Exudation – exudative hardening is caused by the absorption into porous
aggregates of oily components of the bitumen i.e. maltenes.
- changes composition
• Bitumen hardens in use such as – hot bulk storage; hot mix asphalt manufacture;
handling of asphalt i.e. hot storage, transport & laying and in-service.
• Hot bulk storage – high temperature for extended periods, little hardening actually
occurs during this stage though the surface area exposed to oxygen is generally
small relative to the volume
• Hot mix asphalt manufacture
- during this phase a thin film of bitumen is exposed to high temperatures of
super heated aggregates in the presence of oxygen for a relative short period of
time
- typically bitumen film thickness between 5 and 15µm
- at the elevated temperatures, conditions are ideal for oxidation and loss of
volatiles
- this process of hardening is well known and should be taken into account when
selecting grade of bitumen to be used
- as a rough guide, the penetration of bitumen used for hot mix asphalt falls 30%
during the mixing process
• Handling of asphalt – hot mix asphalt is stored either in hot silos or in delivery
vehicles during transport prior to being applied on the road surface. In both
instances some hardening occurs, principally through oxidation by contact of the
binder films with entrained air. Little or no further oxidation occurs during laying
and compaction
• In service hardening – hardening of binder will continue on the road until a
limiting value is reached. The main factors that influences the extent of in-service
hardening is the exposure of binder films to the atmosphere as determined by e.g.
the air void content of asphalt mixes. Very little hardening of bitumen in asphalt
occurs at void contents less than 5% - a significant degree of hardening occurs at
air void contents in excess of 9%. Bitumen content of asphalt mixes as represented
by bitumen film thickness is also a prominent factor influencing in-service
hardening. It is generally suggested that a minimum film thickness of 6-8 mm is
required for satisfactory performance of asphalt mixes. For porous mixes where
higher exposure to air exists, a minimum film thickness of 12μm is recommended
• Rutting and permanent deformation – if the molecular network is relatively simple and
not interconnected, bitumen will tend to deform in-elastically under load ( e.g. not all
deformation is recoverable). Bitumen with higher percentages of non-polar dispersing
molecules are better able to flow and plastically deform because the various polar
molecule network pieces can more easily move relative to one another due to the
greater percentage of fluid non-polar molecules.
• Fatigue cracking – if the molecular network becomes too organized and rigid, bitumen
will fracture rather deform elastically under stress. Bitumen with higher percentages of
polar, network-forming molecules may be more susceptible to fatigue cracking.
• Thermal cracking- at lower temperatures even the normally fluid non-polar molecules
begin to organize into a structure form. Combined with the already-structured polar
molecules, this makes bitumen more rigid and likely to fracture rather than deform
elastically under stress.
• Stripping – bitumen adheres to aggregate because the polar molecules within the
bitumen are attracted to the polar molecules on the aggregate surface. Certain polar
attracts are know to be disrupted by water (itself a polar molecule). Although, the polar
molecules within bitumen will vary in their ability to adhere to any one particular type
of aggregate
• Moisture damage- since it is a polar molecule, water is readily accepted by the
polar bitumen molecules. Water can cause stripping and/or can decrease bitumen
viscosity. It typically acts like a solvent in bitumen and results in reduce strength
and increase rutting. When taken to the extreme, this same property can be used
to produced asphalt emulsions. Interestingly, from a chemical point of view water
should have a greater effect on older asphalt. Oxidation causes aged (or older)
asphalts to contain more polar molecules which allows it to more readily accept
water. However, the oxidation aging effects probably counteract any moisture-
related aging effects