Networking Basics CCNA 1

Networking Basics CCNA 1
Chapter 2
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Networking Basics and Terminology
A Brief History of the Networking Universe

• Earliest commercial computers were large
mainframes, run by computer scientists
• Terminals were invented, allowing users to
interact with the computers
• Eventually (1960s), some terminals were
located to allow remote access
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• By late 1960s minicomputers entered
marketplace
• “Mini’s” were smaller, less powerful and
less expensive than mainframes
• Mid 1970s – First personal computers
(PCs) built by researchers
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• 1977 – Apple introduces the Apple-II
• 1981 – IBM introduces its first PC
• Mid 1980s – Computer users with
standalone computers start sharing data
through the use of modems connecting to
another computer (dialup, point-to-point)
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The Need for Networking Protocols and Standards

• 1960s to 1980s – Each vendor set its own
proprietary protocols and standards
• Equipment from different vendors would not
interoperate
• Eventually, open standards were agreed upon
• Open standards allow more competition, which
increases speed of development
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Popular Network Standards Organizations
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Ethernet LANs and LAN Devices

• Ethernet LANs originally used coaxial cable
(similar to Cable TV cable)
• Network Interface Cards (NICs) would attach to
a length of cable called a segment
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Ethernet LANs and LAN Devices

• In early Ethernet LANs, all devices sent their
data on one wire
• All other devices on the segment received the
signal
• These types of Ethernet are said to be
“broadcast” media, because any signal sent by
one device is received by all other devices
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Characteristics of Early Ethernet LANs

• Limited to a relatively small geographic area
• Allows multiple devices access to high-speed
media
• Administrative control rests within a single
company
• Provides full-time connectivity
• Typically connects devices that are close
together
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Cisco Networking Device Icons
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Ethernet Repeaters
• When a signal is sent over a wire, it degrades
• 10BASE5 limited a single segment to 500
meters; 10BASE2 to a little less than 200 meters
(185 meters) – hence their names (the 5 and the
2; the 10 is for 10Mbps)
• To extend the distance of LANs, repeaters were
developed
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Features of Ethernet Repeaters

• Typically had two ports connecting two
different Ethernet segments
• Interpreted the incoming signal on one
port as 1’s and 0’s
• Sent a regenerated clean signal out the
other port
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Repeated Ethernet Signal

See Conceptual View on next slide
• Betty sends a clean signal
• The signal degrades by the time it reaches
the repeater
• The repeater regenerates a new, clean
signal and sends it out its other port
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Repeated Ethernet Signal
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Ethernet Hubs and 10BASE-T

• Coax cables were expensive and difficult
to work with
• If the cable broke, everyone on the LAN
had problems
• Lead to the creation of 10BASE-T
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Ethernet Hubs and 10BASE-T

• The 10 means it runs at 10Mbps
• The T means that it uses twisted-pair cable
• The cable is Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP),
which is cheaper than coax cable
• Smaller diameter than coax cable
• Terminated with RJ-45 connectors
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10BASE-T with a Hub – Star Topology
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Functions of a Hub
• Provides RJ-45 jacks so cables with RJ-45
connectors can be attached
• Repeats any incoming signal out all other
ports
• Was originally called a “multiport repeater”
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Ethernet Bridges
• Examine incoming signal, interpret signal as 0’s
and 1’s, find the destination MAC address listed
in the frame
• If destination MAC address is reachable via a
different interface than the one on which it was
received, then clean, regenerate and forward the
frame out that interface
• If the destination is reachable on the same
interface on which it was received, discard the
frame (this is called “filtering”)
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A Bridge Making a Filtering Decision
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A Bridge Making a Forwarding Decision
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Ethernet Frames
• An Ethernet frame is the data sent by an
Ethernet NIC or interface
• The first bits sent are the header; contains
info such as the destination and source
MAC addresses
• Includes headers from other protocols,
such as IP
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Conceptual View of an Ethernet Frame
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Unicast and Broadcast Ethernet Frames and

Addresses
• Before the introduction of bridges, the LAN acted
as a broadcast medium
• The term unicast MAC address identifies a single
NIC or Ethernet interface
• Sometimes a computer needs to send a frame that
will reach all devices on the LAN; it uses a
broadcast address: FFFF.FFFF.FFFF
• All devices must process data sent to this address
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LAN Switches
• Like a hub, a switch provides a large
number of ports/jacks to plug in cables
• Forms a physical star topology
• When forwarding a frame, the switch
regenerates a clean signal
• Like bridges, switches use the same
filtering/forwarding logic on a per-port basis
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A Switch Making a
Forwarding Decision
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Wide-Area Networks (WANs)

• Cover a large geographic area
• WAN Technologies:
– Modems
– Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
– Digital Subscribe Line (DSL)
– Frame Relay
– T1 or E1 leased lines – T1, E1, T3, E3, etc.
– Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) – synchronous
transport Level 1(STS-1) optical carrier [OC]-1, STS-3
(OC-3), etc.
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Point-to-Point Leased Lines

• A point-to-point leased line extends
between two locations
• The line is not owned by the user; it is
leased from a service provider
• The service provider is often a telephone
company (telco)
• Often, the term link is used to describe a
point-to-point leased line
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Point-to-Point
Leased Lines:
Leased lines
are drawn like
lightning bolts
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Routers and Their Use with LANs

• Routers perform a basic but very important
forwarding process in which they receive data
packets and then forward the packets toward
the destination
• Routers can send and receive traffic on most
any kind of physical networking media
• Routers are the perfect device to connect a
LAN to a WAN
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Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)

• A medium-sized network geography,
perhaps city-wide
• Usually very high speed
• Optical media used between routers can
move data at 10 Gbps or even 40 Gbps
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High-Speed City-Wide MAN
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Storage-Area Networks (SANs)

• Allow computers to communicate with storage
devices
• Features of SANs:
– Performance: concurrent access of disk or tape
arrays
– Availability: used to back up data to offsite locations
– Scalability: easy relocation of backup data,
operations, file migration, and data replication
between systems
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Typical SAN Used

by a Server Farm
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Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)

• Companies can use the Internet to send
data between sites, instead of using
leased lines
• Often less expensive than leased lines
• Can be less secure than leased lines
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Virtual
Private
Networks
(VPNs)
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Intranet VPNs
• Packets are encrypted before they
leave for the Internet
• Not practical for a hacker to break the
encryption
• Intranet VPNs are used inside a single
organization
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Intranet VPN
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Comparing Intranet VPNs to Extranet

and Access VPNs
• Intranet VPN – A VPN between sites of a single
organization
• Extranet VPN – A VPN between sites of
different organizations
• Access VPN – A VPN between individual users
and an enterprise network, allowing access
while working from home or traveling
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Extranet and Access VPNs
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Physical Network Topologies
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Physical Bus Topology

• 10BASE2 and 10BASE5 use a bus
topology
• Looks like a city street where each of the
computers is a bus stop
• A frame sent by one device is received
by all other devices
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Physical Star Topology

• 10BASE-T Ethernet connects with a hub
• The hub is the device at the center, so it
resembles a start
• The actual physical layout of the cable
may not be in a star pattern
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Logical Bus Topology

• “Logical” refers to how the network
operates, not where the cables run
• 10BASE-T is a logical bus, because all
devices see any signal sent by other
devices on the network
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Physical versus Logical Topology

• Physical Topology – The topology is
determined by the physical layout of the
cabling and transmission media
• Logical Topology – The topology is
determined by the media access control
logic and how the devices collectively
send traffic over the network
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Typical
Modern
LAN and Its
Similarities
to a Star
Topology
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Typical
Modern
LAN Design
for a Single
Building
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Ring Topologies
• Cable is installed from first device to
second device, second device to third
device, and so on, until the last device
connects to the first device
• Each device cleans up the signal, so
fewer repeaters are needed
• Can have single or dual rings
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Ring Topology
• R1 and R2 detect that
cable between them
is cut
• R1 and R2 loop the
primary ring to the
backup ring using
circuitry in the routers
• One ring still works,
assuring connectivity
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Hierarchical and Extended Star Topologies

• A central device or site connects to several
other sites
• Much like a star topology
• The other sites then connect to still more sites
• Extended star topologies have the same
features as a hierarchical topology, but are not
drawn in a hierarchy
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Hierarchical Network Design
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Mesh: Full and Partial

• Most often refers to WAN topologies
• Full mesh: all devices connect to all other
devices – highly reliable – Frame Relay is an
example
• Partial mesh: Each device connects to many,
but not all, other devices
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Mesh: Full and Partial
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Bandwidth
Bandwidth: Number of bits per second that can be sent

by a device across a particular transmission medium
Names and Units of Digital bandwidth:
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Bandwidth
LAN and WAN Bandwidth

• Actual speed is limited by 3 factors: cabling,
cable length, and the speed at which the
devices on the end of the cable try to send data
• Ethernet standards call for Category 5 (Cat 5)
UTP cabling, for speeds of 10, 100 and even
1000 Mbps
• The cable can handle higher speeds, but is
hardware limited
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Bandwidth
Bandwidths for Various Ethernet Standards and Cables
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Bandwidth
WAN Bandwidths
• Vary significantly, as do LAN bandwidths
• Engineers need to worry about details such as
cable length restrictions and required equipment
• Customers need to worry about how fast the
WAN link is, how much it costs, and the type of
technology used
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Bandwidth
WAN Bandwidth Standards
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Bandwidth
WAN Bandwidth Standards (continued)
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Bandwidth
Throughput Versus Bandwidth

• Throughput is how many bits are actually
transferred between two computers in a given
time
• Two points to consider when comparing
throughput to bandwidth:
– Throughput rate may vary over time due to network
conditions; bandwidth does not vary over time
– Bandwidth defines the speed of a single link;
throughput measures the speed of the end-to-end
connection
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Bandwidth
Two Examples
of Throughput
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Bandwidth is What You Pay for,
Throughput is What You Get
Factors That Affect Throughput

• Networking devices in the route being used
• Type of data being transferred
• Protocols used to transfer the data
• Topology of the network
• Congestion level in the network
• Speed and current workload of the computers
• Time of day (# of active concurrent users)
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Bandwidth
Calculating Data Transfer Time: Two Methods
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Bandwidth
Calculating Data Transfer Time:

Four Examples from the “Two Examples of Throughput” Slide
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Bandwidth
Analog Bandwidth
• In the analog world, a number of consecutive
frequencies (a “band of frequencies”) defined how
much information could be sent with an analog signal
• The wider the band of frequencies, the more
information could be sent
• With digital transmission, the range of frequencies
does not affect the speed, but the term “bandwidth” is
still used to describe the speed of the bits across a link
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Bandwidth
Analog Bandwidth (continued)

• Analog transmission requires a set frequency band to
work
• The figure below shows a 3-hertz signal
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Bandwidth
Planning for Bandwidth

• Neither LAN nor WAN bandwidth is free
• On enterprise networks, WAN costs can be
30-40% of the total budget
• LAN links cost money, due to wiring costs and
the costs of networking devices such as
switches
• Bandwidth is not infinite, and it costs money to
upgrade
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Bandwidth
Planning for Bandwidth (continued)
Four reasons why bandwidth is important:

• Bandwidth is finite
• Bandwidth is not free
• Network engineers need to plan for bandwidth
• Bandwidth demand is ever-increasing
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The OSI and TCP/IP Networking
Models
• Networking models define a related set of

standards and protocols
• When used together, these protocols and
standards allow the creation of a working
network
• The two most commonly used models are the
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model
and the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP) model
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Models
• In the 1960s, vendors each used their own set

of standards and protocols
• These proprietary networking models would
not allow equipment from one company to
work with equipment from another company
• To overcome this problem, the OSI model was
developed beginning in 1984
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Models
The OSI Model

• Goal was to be the one open networking model that all
vendors would implement
• The term “open” means that all vendors have access
to the protocols and rules for building products
• Most vendors worked toward adopting the OSI model
in the late 1980s and early 1990s
• Many vendors and networking professionals adopted
the OSI terminology to hold meaningful conversations
about different networking models, making those
conversations a little easier
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Models
The OSI Model (continued)

• The OSI model might have been the final
standard for networking, but TCP/IP proved to
be more widely accepted
• Computers today rarely implement the OSI
model as their model for networking
• Why use OSI? The terminology is still used,
and it is useful in troubleshooting networking
problems
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Models
The OSI Layers

General networking functions are defined in layers:
• Allows better standardization of different components
• Opens up competition in marketplace
• Standardizes components
• Standardizes interfaces between different layers,
allowing companies to focus on one layer
• Prevents changes in one layer from affecting other
layers
• Breaks network communication into smaller
components
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Models
The OSI Layers
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Models
Memorizing the Order of the OSI Layers

• Starting with Layer 1:
– Please Do Not Take Sausage Pizza Away
– Pew! Dead Ninja Turtles Smell Pretty Awful
• Starting with Layer 7:

– All People Seem To Need Data Processing
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Models
Functions of the OSI Layers

• Layer 7 (application layer)
– Provides services to end user’s applications
– Does not provide services to any other OSI layer
• Layer 6 (presentation layer)
– Ensures info from one system’s application layer can be read
by another system
– Translates among multiple data formats
– Does encryption and decryption
– Handles graphics standards such as PICT, TIFF, JPEG, MIDI
and MPEG
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Models
Functions of the OSI Layers (continued)

• Layer 5 (session layer)
– Establishes, manages and terminates sessions
between two hosts
• Layer 4 (transport layer)
– Segments data given to it by the session layer into
smaller chunks
– Defines error-recovery services
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Models
Functions of the OSI Layers (continued)
• Layer 3 (network layer)
– Provides connectivity and path selection between two host
systems
– Concerned with logical addressing
• Layer 2 (data link layer)
– Provides transit of data across a physical link by defining the
rules about how the link is used
– Concerned with physical addressing
• Layer 1 (physical layer)
– Defines electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional
specifications for activating, maintaining, and deactivating the
physical link between end systems
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Models
Relationship of OSI Layers and Devices
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Models
The TCP/IP Networking Model

• Began as part of a research project for the US
Dept. of Defense (DoD) in the 1970s.
• The structure remains the same today, but
many new protocols have been added
• Can be easily compared to the OSI model;
uses 4 layers instead of 7
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Models
The TCP/IP Reference Model Layers
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Models
Encapsulation
1. Application
headers are
added
2. Data is
segmented
3. IP address
information is
added
4. Data link header
and trailer are
added
5. Bits are
transmitted
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Models
Segments, Packets, Frames, and PDUs
• Important to know the terminology for the group
of bytes at each layer
• The generic term is protocol data unit (PDU)
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Models
De-encapsulation
1. Physical layer interprets
incoming electrical signal
2. Contents of Ethernet
header and trailer
analyzed; IP packet
extracted
3. Network layer verifies IP
header is okay, extracts
contents of data field
4. Segments are
reassembled and error
recovery performed
5. Data is given to
application
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Models
Layer Interactions
• Same layer interaction – creation of headers, and
possibly trailers, by a protocol at one networking
layer on one computer, with the goal of
communicating to the same layer and protocol on
another computer
• Adjacent layer interaction – On a single computer,
the interaction of protocols that sit at adjacent layers
of their networking model. Includes exchange of
data during encapsulation and de-encapsulation,
and how a lower layer protocol provides service to
an upper layer protocol
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Networking Fundamentals
Summary
• Network devices (hubs, repeaters, bridges, switches, routers)
connect host devices to allow them to communicate
• Protocols provide sets of rules for communication
• The physical topology is the actual layout of the wire or media
• Common physical topologies are bus, ring, star,extended star,
hierarchical, and mesh
• A LAN is designed to work in a limited geographical area,
providing multi-access to high-bandwidth media
• LANs are controlled privately under local administration
• LANs provide full-time connectivity to services and connect
physically adjacent devices
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Summary
• WANs operate over large geographical areas
• WANs allow access serial interfaces that operate at lower
speeds, provide full- and part-time connectivity to local services
and connect devices separated over large areas
• A MAN is a network that spans a metropolitan area such as a
city
• A SAN is a dedicated, high performance network used to move
data between servers and storage resources
• SANs are scalable and have disaster tolerance built it
• A VPN is a private network constructed with a public network
infrastructure such as the Internet
• The three main types of VPNs are access, intranet and
extranet
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Summary
• Access VPNs provide mobile workers connectivity
• Intranet VPNs are only available to users who have access
privileges to the internal network of an organization
• Extranet VPNs are design to provide applications and services
to external users or enterprises
• Bandwidth equals number of bits per second (bps) that can
theoretically be sent through a network connection
• Throughput is the amount of data that actually passes through
a connection in a give time, and is constrained by the slowest
link between the two end devices
• Analog bandwidth is a measure of how much of the
electromagnetic spectrum is occupied by each signal
• Digital bandwidth is measured in bits per second
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Summary
• Layers are used to describe communication from one computer
to another because it:
– Reduces complexity
– Standardizes interfaces
– Facilitates modular engineering
– Ensures interoperability
– Accelerates evolution
– Simplifies teaching and learning
• Two models are the OSI model and the TCP/IP model
• The OSI model has seven layers; the TCP/IP model has four –
some layers have the same name but do not correspond
exactly
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Summary
• Data is encapsulated with these steps:
– Images and text are converted to data
– Data is packaged into segments
– Each data segment is encapsulated in a packet with source
and destination addresses
– Each packet is encapsulated in a frame with the MAC
address of the next directly connected device
– Each frame is converted to a pattern of 1s and 0s and
transmitted on the media
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Networking Basics CCNA 1

A Brief History of the Networking Universe

A Brief History of the Networking Universe

A Brief History of the Networking Universe

The Need for Networking Protocols and Standards

Popular Network Standards Organizations

Ethernet LANs and LAN Devices

Ethernet LANs and LAN Devices

Characteristics of Early Ethernet LANs

Cisco Networking Device Icons

Features of Ethernet Repeaters

Repeated Ethernet Signal

Repeated Ethernet Signal

Ethernet Hubs and 10BASE-T

Ethernet Hubs and 10BASE-T

10BASE-T with a Hub – Star Topology

A Bridge Making a Filtering Decision

A Bridge Making a Forwarding Decision

Conceptual View of an Ethernet Frame

Unicast and Broadcast Ethernet Frames and

Wide-Area Networks (WANs)

Point-to-Point Leased Lines

Routers and Their Use with LANs

Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)

High-Speed City-Wide MAN

Storage-Area Networks (SANs)

Typical SAN Used

Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)

Comparing Intranet VPNs to Extranet

Extranet and Access VPNs

Physical Network Topologies

Physical Bus Topology

Physical Star Topology

Logical Bus Topology

Physical versus Logical Topology

Hierarchical and Extended Star Topologies

Hierarchical Network Design

Mesh: Full and Partial

Mesh: Full and Partial

Bandwidth: Number of bits per second that can be sent

LAN and WAN Bandwidth

Bandwidths for Various Ethernet Standards and Cables

WAN Bandwidth Standards

WAN Bandwidth Standards (continued)

Throughput Versus Bandwidth

Factors That Affect Throughput

Calculating Data Transfer Time: Two Methods

Calculating Data Transfer Time:

Analog Bandwidth (continued)

Planning for Bandwidth

Planning for Bandwidth (continued)

Four reasons why bandwidth is important:

• Networking models define a related set of

• In the 1960s, vendors each used their own set

The OSI Model

The OSI Model (continued)

The OSI Layers

The OSI Layers

Memorizing the Order of the OSI Layers

• Starting with Layer 7:

Functions of the OSI Layers

Functions of the OSI Layers (continued)

Relationship of OSI Layers and Devices