DCN

BUITMS Quetta 1
 Topics to be covered
What is a system?
What are signals?
Example (Satellite Communication System)
Classification of Signals
 Continuous-Time Signals

 Discrete-Time Signal

 Deterministic/Stochastic Signals

 Even (Symmetric)/ Odd (Anti-Symmetric)

Signals

BUITMS Quetta 2
 What is a system?

A system is a collection of components wherein

individual components are constrained by
connecting inter-relationships such as the system
as a whole fulfills some specific functions in
response to varying demands.

BUITMS Quetta 3
 What are signals?
Varying demand is a function of one or more
parameters and is called the SIGNAL.

 This signal carries the demand information in

various physical forms like current, voltage,
mechanical movement etc.
 The response of a system to the input signal is
the output signal. The system indeed is then a
set of cause-effect relationships.

BUITMS Quetta 4
 Input Signals
System
Output Signals

Disturbance Signal
An unwanted input signal to the system is called disturbance
signal.

Disturbance Signal
Input Signals
System
Output Signals

BUITMS Quetta 5
In electronics, a signal is an electric current or used
to convey data from one place to another.

The simplest form of signal is a direct current (DC)

that is switched on and off; this is the principle by
which the early telegraph worked.

More complex signals consist of an alternating

current (AC) or electromagnetic carrier that
contains one or more data streams.

Data is superimposed on a carrier current or wave

by means of a process called modulation.

BUITMS Quetta 6
Signal modulation can be done in either of two
main ways: analog and digital.

In recent years, digital modulation has been getting

more common, while analog modulation methods
have been used less and less.

There are still plenty of analog signals around,

however, and they will probably never become
totally extinct.

BUITMS Quetta 7
Except for DC signals such as telegraph and
baseband, all signal carriers have a definable
frequencies.

Signals also have a property called wavelength,

which is inversely proportional to the frequency.
wavelength = 1 / frequency
or
λ = 1/f

BUITMS Quetta 8
Wavelength is the distance between identical points
in the adjacent cycles of a waveform signal propogated in space or
along a wire, as shown in the illustration.
In wireless systems, this length is usually specified in meters, centimeters, or
millimeters. In the case of infrared,visible light, ultraviolet, and gamma
radiation, the wavelength is more often specified in nanometers (units of 10-9
meter)
or Angstrom units (units of 10-10 meter).
Wavelength is inversely related to frequency .
The higher the frequency of the signal, the shorter the wavelength. If f is the
frequency of the signal as measured in megahertz, and w is the
wavelength as measured in meters, then
w = 300/f
and conversely
f = 300/w
Wavelength is sometimes represented by the Greek letter lambda ( λ)

BUITMS Quetta 9
In some information technology contexts, a
signal is simply "that which is sent or received“,
thus including both the carrier and the data
together.

In telephony, a signal is special data that is used to

set up or control communication.

In telephony, signaling is the exchange of

information between involved points in the network
that sets up, controls, and terminates each
telephone call.

BUITMS Quetta 10
In in-band signaling, the signaling is on the
same channel as the telephone call.

In out-of-band signaling, signaling is on separate

channels dedicated for the purpose.

BUITMS Quetta 11
Example
Satellite Communication System

BUITMS Quetta 12
 Classification of Signals
The independent variable signals can be the
functions of time or any factor other than time (say
frequency).

Signals are classified as:

1. Continuous Signals
2. Discrete Signals

BUITMS Quetta 13
Continuous Signals
A signal which is uniquely defined at all ‘time’ as an
independent variable, for a certain time domain
except for discontinuities at denumberable set of
points (non-physical system, management system)
known as continuous-time signal.

30

25

v (t)
20

15

10

0
1 2 3 4

t (time)
BUITMS Quetta 14
Discrete Signals
Discrete-time signals are defined only at discrete
values of independent variable, time ‘t’. The
interval between signal values is often same, but it
is not always on. Example, withdrawal of money
from bank account.
f (n) 30
Rupees 25

20

15

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 n (month)
Discrete-Time Signal ( called Sequence)

BUITMS Quetta 15
Mathematically f (n) as sequence of withdrawal is,
f (n) = { f (0), f (1), f (2), f (3), f (4), f (5), f (6), f (7) }
where, f (0), f (3), f (4), f (6) are zero, since no
money is withdrawn.

Discrete-Time Systems
System whose Input and Output are characterized by discrete sequences are
known as discrete-time systems.

For simplicity we assume that the signals are

time discrete. Time discrete signals often
arise from sampling a time continuous
signal.

BUITMS Quetta 16
Deterministic / Stochastic Signals
Deterministic signals are characterized by the fact
that their behavior is fully known at all times that
is, these can be described as functions of time with
certainty.

1. In deterministic approach the unwanted random

components called noise is usually neglected.
2. We proceed as if all quantities have definite values that are
known precisely at all times. This is called the deterministic
approach to the system analysis.

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The signals that are not deterministic but vary in
general in a random fashion are called stochastic
systems.

1 Example, radar tracking system, where the position and

speed of the target to be tracked are not deterministic
but vary in general in a random fashion.

2 The behavior can be determined to a considerable degree

if various statistical properties ( mean, mode, variance,
etc) of the signals and noise are known. This is called the
stochastic approach to the systems.

BUITMS Quetta 18
Even (Symmetric) / Odd (Anti-Symmetric)
Signals
The real valued continuous-time signal f (t) can be
classified as an even signal if it satisfies the
following relation:
f (t) = f (-t)
f (t)

-T/2 T/2 t

Even (Symmetric) Signal

BUITMS Quetta 19
If f (t) satisfies the following relation, then
such signal is said to be an odd signal.

f (t) = -f (-t)
f (t)

-T/2 -T/4
-T/4 T/2 t

-A

BUITMS Quetta 20