Power Engineering Training Course

POWER ENGINEERING
TRAINING COURSE
GROUP
POWER LINKERS
Wisdom is not Virtue but Necessity 1

REV. R0, 03-03-2000
POWER SYSTEM CONSULTANTS GROUP
Power Engineering Training Course
Protection and Control Equipment Dr. K. Rajamani
and
Grounding of Electrical System Mr. H. C. Mehta
2
1st Day : Protection & Control Equipment
09.00 - 09.30 Hrs. Registration

09.30 - 10.00 Hrs. Inauguration
10.00 - 11.00 Hrs. 1st Session
11.00 - 11.15 Hrs. Tea Break
11.15 - 13.00 Hrs. 2nd Session
13.00 - 14.00 Hrs. Lunch Break
14.00 - 15.15 Hrs. 3rd Session
15.15 - 15.30 Hrs. Tea Break
15.30 - 17.00 Hrs. 4th Session
17.00 - 17.30 Hrs. Q-A Session 3
INDEX
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 UNGROUNDED AND GROUNDED SYSTEM
1.2 GROUNDING AND EARTHING
2.0 UNGROUNDED SYSTEM
2.1 NEUTRAL & GROUND – DIFFERENCE
2.2 ADVANTAGES OF UNGROUNDED SYSTEM
2.3 DISADVANTAGES OF UNGROUNDED SYSTEM

4
2.4 TRANSIENT OVER VOLTAGES IN

UNGROUNDED SYSTEM
2.5 GROUND FAULT DETECTION IN

UNGROUNDED SYSTEM
2.6 NEUTRAL INVERSION AND FERRO_RESONANCE
2.7 MITIGATING TECHNIQUES FOR

FERRO RESONANCE
2.8 UNGROUNDED SYSTEM APPLICATION 5

3.0 REASONS FOR GROUNDING

3.1 GROUNDING LOCATIONS
3.2 GROUNDING METHODS
3.3 MEASURE OF GROUNDING EFFECTIVENESS
3.4 EFFECTIVELY GROUNDED SYSTEM
4.0 SOLID GROUNDING

4.1 GROUNDING, ZERO SEQUENCE AND HARMONIC
CURRENTS
4.2 APPLICATIONS
6
5.0 RESISTANCE GROUNDING

5.1 REASONS FOR LIMITING FAULT CURRENT
5.2 HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDING
5.3 LOW RESISTANCE GROUNDING
6.0 RESONANT GROUNDING

GROUND FAULT NEUTRALISER
7.0 GROUNDING THE BUS

7.1 ZIG – ZAG TRANSFORMER
7.2 STAR – DELTA TRANSFORMER

7
8.0 UNINTENTIONAL GROUNDING
9.0 SUMMARY OF COMPARISON : DIFFERENT

GROUNDING METHODS
10.0 GENERATOR NEUTRAL GROUNDING PRACTICES
11.0 NEUTRAL GROUNDING – PHASE AND LINE

VOLTAGES
12.0 SEQUENCE VOLTAGES VS FAULT LOCATION

8
13.0 NEUTRAL GROUNDING - FAIRY TALES
14.0 GROUNDING – DC SYSTEM
15.0 REFERENCES
9
1.0 INTRODUCTION
 UPTO 1940 : MOST OF THE SYSTEMS
 OPERATED UNGROUNDED
 NEUTRALS KEPT FREE ( FLOATING )
 GROUND CONNECTION NOT USEFUL FOR TRANSFER
OF THREE PHASE POWER IN THREE WIRE SYSTEM
10
 LINE TO GROUND FAULT: MAJORITY (70%)
 NO RETURN PATH : FAULT CURRENT VERY LOW
 SERVICE NOT INTERRUPTED
 AT LEISURE, LOCATE FAULT AND RECTIFY
 RELAYING NOT ADVANCED
11
 SOON PROBLEMS BECAME CRITICAL
 TRANSIENT OVER VOLTAGES
 ARCING GROUNDS
 INSULATION FAILURE
 GROUNDING NEUTRAL – SOLUTION ?
12
 UNGROUNDED [ OVER VOLTAGE PROBLEM ]
GROUNDED [ OVER CURRENT PROBLEM ]
 EVEN TODAY GROUNDED VS UNGROUNDED
'THE' PREFERRED ALTERNATIVE : DOES NOT EXIST

13
1.2 GROUNDING AND EARTHING
• GROUNDING
 CONNECTION OF POWER SYSTEM NEUTRAL TO

GROUND (EARTH)
 NEUTRAL GROUNDING / SYSTEM GROUNDING
 CONNECTION OF CURRENT CARRYING PART TO

GROUND
 LIMIT OVER VOLTAGE OF LIVE CONDUCTOR

 INSULATION PROBLEM
14
• EARTHING
 ANOTHER TERM  EQUIPMENT GROUNDING
 CONNECTION OF NON CURRENT CARRYING PARTS

(LIKE ENCLOSURE) TO GROUND
 FOR HUMAN AND EQUIPMENT SAFETY
 TOUCH & STEP POTENTIAL  IN VOLTS
 THIS PRESENTATION : ONLY ABOUT NEUTRAL

GROUNDING AND NOT ABOUT EARTHING
15
 NO INTENTIONAL CONNECTION TO GROUND FOR

EXCLUSIVE GROUNDING PURPOSE
 REALITY  NO IDEAL UNGROUNDED SYSTEM
 PHASES COUPLED TO GROUND

THROUGH CAPACITANCE
16
 BALANCED OPERATION • UNGROUNDED SYSTEM

• BALANCED STEADY STATE OPERATION
B
  CHARGING CURRENTS N IB
Y
= IR + IY + IB = 0 IY
R
X
IR X X
C C C
 NO RESULTANT CURRENT FIG_2
_1_A
TO EARTH
PHASOR DIAGRAM
B
VR = V Y = V B = 1.0
 NEUTRAL VOLTAGE = IR VRY= V YB= V BR=  3
G,N
R
GROUND VOLTAGE = 0 IB
IY
IR+ IY+ IB= 0

VNG= V 0 = 0
Y
FIG_2
NEUTRAL SHIFT _1_B
17
PHASOR DIAGRAM
• FIG 2_2_A
B I F = ( I RY+ I RB )
 SINGLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT = - (I YR+ I BR )

V
BR
=V
BG
= 3
V =V = 3
YR YG
 (PHASE) VOLTAGE TO GROUND G I  = I = I =  3 / X

N BR YR
OF HEALTHY PHASES  3
C
R
I YR+ I BR =  3 I = 3 / X
C
I BR I YR
I F = I RY + I RB
 LINE VOLTAGE TRIANGLE I YR + I BR VD = V + V

RG YG
+ V = 3.0
BG
Y
 NO CHANGE V
GN
=V
0
= 1.0
FIG_2
_2_B
 NEUTRAL VOLTAGE  GROUND VOLTAGE


NEUTRAL SHIFT  1.0 PU
 FAULT CURRENT ( IF ) : CAPACITIVE CURRENT = 3 / XC
 IF IF > 5 to 10A, ARCING GROUNDS 18
 FALLACY : NO HAZARD IN TOUCHING A LIVE PHASE !!
 CURRENT THROUGH BODY AND STRAY CAPACITANCE
 IF CURRENT MORE THAN A FEW MILLIAPS, INJURIOUS
IRB B
IRB
IRY Y
IRY
R
IRY + IRB XC XC
IRY
IRB
19
2.1 NEUTRAL & GROUND – DIFFERENCE
 NEUTRAL & GROUND  NOT ALWAYS SAME
 GROUND  ALWAYS ZERO VOLTAGE PLANE
 NEUTRAL  CAN BE AT GROUND POTENTIAL i.e. ZERO

OR
 CAN HAVE SOME NON_ZERO POTENTIAL
W.R.T GROUND
 IF NEUTRAL AT ZERO POTENTIAL  NO NEUTRAL SHIFT
 IF NEUTRAL AT NON_ZERO POTENTIAL

 NEUTRAL SHIFTED 20
 DEFINITION OF NEUTRAL
 CONNECT THREE IDEAL AND EQUAL RESISTORS

TO THE THREE PHASES IN STAR
 COMMON JUNCTION POINT  NEUTRAL
 VOLTAGE OF COMMON JUNCTION POINT W.R.T GROUND

 NEUTRAL VOLTAGE
21
• FIG 2_3
• NEUTRAL AND ZERO SEQUENCE VOLTAGE
 ZERO SEQUENCE R
VOLTAGE AT Y
B
ANY POINT IN NETWORK
V RG V YG V BG

R R R R
N
NEUTRAL SHIFT AT
THAT POINT IN THE VNG
NETWORK FIG_2_3_A
 VRG  VNG VYG  VNG VBG  VNG

--------------  -----------------  -------------- = 0
R R R
 VRG  VYG  VBG = 3 VNG
 FROM THEORY OF SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

VRG  VYG  VBG = 3 V0
 HENCE, VNG = V0
 ZERO SEQUENCE VOLTAGE AT ANY POINT IN NETWORK

 22
NEUTRAL SHIFT AT THAT POINT IN THE NETWORK
• FIG 2_4 VR = VY = VB = 1.0
 BALANCED OPERATING B VRY = V YB = V BR =  3
CONDITION VR  VRG
 VRG = 1  0 ; G ,N R VY  VYG
VYG = 1  -120 ; VB  VBG
VBG = 1  120
Y
V D = V + V + V = 3V = 0
R Y B 0
 VRG  VYG  VBG
VNG = V0 = V D / 3 = 0
= 3 VNG = 3 V0 = 0
 NEUTRAL AT GROUND POTENTIAL : NO SHIFT

23
 UNBALANCED OPERATING CONDITION

B
 LINE TO GROUND FAULT

ON PHASE 'R’
 VRG = 0 ; G
R
N
VYG  1  -120 ;
VBG  1  120
Y
 VRG  VYG  VBG = 3 VNG = 3 V0 = 1.0
 NEUTRAL VOLTAGE( VNG )  0.33 PU ABOVE GROUND

24
 NEUTRAL DISPLACEMENT  OCCURS IRRESPECTIVE OF

TYPE OF GROUNDING
 NEUTRAL DISPLACEMENT MAGNITUDE
HIGH  UNGROUNDED SYSTEM (e.g. 1 PU)

( 100% VPHASE)
LOW  SOLIDLY GROUNDED SYSTEM (e.g. 0.33 PU)

( 33% VPHASE)
25
 FIG_SE_CO_8
 PRESENCE OF ZERO SEQUENCE VOLTAGE V0
 DISTORTS PHASE VOLTAGES
 NEUTRAL VOLTAGE TO GROUND # 0  NEUTRAL SHIFTED
 BUT LINE to LINE VOLTAGE UNAFFECTED !
26
 FIG 13_4_A
 FIG 13_4_B
 NEUTRAL VOLTAGE VNG= 0  BALANCED SYSTEM ?
 NO! BOTH LINE & PHASE VOLTAGE CAN BE UNBALANCED

AND STILL THERE NEED NOT BE ANY NEUTRAL SHIFT!
 MORAL
 INDICATION OF UNBALANCE
 MEASUREMENT OF NEUTRAL VOLTAGE OR LINE to LINE

VOLTAGE  NOT POSITIVE PROOF
 MEASUREMENT OF LINE to GROUND VOLTAGE (PHASE

VOLTAGE)  POSITIVE PROOF 27
2.2 ADVANTAGES OF UNGROUNDED SYSTEM

 CURRENT AT THE POINT OF FAULT  VERY LOW

CORE OR IRON DAMAGE MINIMUM
 SERVICE CONTINUITY POSSIBLE EVEN WITH (L-G)

FAULT HANGING
 ZERO SEQUENCE CURRENT CIRCULATION  VERY LOW


INTERFERENCE WITH COMMUNICATION CIRCUITS 
MINIMUM
28

 MULTIPLE FAULTS TO GROUND  TRIPPING OF FEEDERS
 FEEDER A ( R to G & Y to G )  TRIP FEEDER A
 FEEDER A( R to G ) & FEEDER B( Y to G )  TRIP FEEDERS

A&B
 FEEDER A( R to G ) & FEEDER B( R to G )  NO TRIPPING
 OVERVOLAGE ON HEALTHY PHASES DURING FAULTS

 NEUTRAL  FULL INSULATION
 NOT POSSIBLE TO USE GRADED INSULATION
 LA RATING HIGHER  100% ( L to L )

29
 ARCING FAULTS, RESTRIKE  INSULATION FAILURE
 FAULT DETECTION : POSSIBLE
 FAULT LOCATION : DIFFICULT
30
2.4 TRANSIENT OVER VOLTAGES IN UNGROUNDED SYSTEM

 CURRENT TO BE INTERRUPTED  CAPACITIVE CURRENT
BREAKER / ARC
R,X
L
VSOURCE X
C
• FIG 2_5
 VOLTAGE & CURRENT  90 OUT OF PHASE
 INTERRUPTION AT CURRENT ZERO


 VOLTAGE MAXIMUM ( SAY 1.0 PU ) AT INTERRUPTION
31
• FIG 2_5
 RESIDUAL VOLTAGE ACROSS CAPACITIVE SYSTEM
( V RC  +1 PU ) DECAYS AS PER ITS TIME CONSTANT
 RESTRIKE OCCURS, WHEN SOURCE VOLTAGE (-VE)

MAXIMUM (  1 PU )
 VOLTAGE AT CAPACITOR, AFTER REFLECTION, DUE TO SOURCE

V SC+ = 2 PU
 VOLTAGE ACROSS ARC / BREAKER = V SC+  V RC =  3 PU
 ARC INTERRUPTS AGAIN

32
• FIG 2_5
 RESIDUAL VOLTAGE ACROSS CAPACITOR V RC   3 PU
 RESTRIKE OCCURS AGAIN  WHEN SOURCE VOLTAGE

(+VE) MAXIMUM (  1 PU )
 VOLTAGE AT CAPACITOR, AFTER REFLECTION, DUE TO SOURCE

V SC+ =  2 PU
• VOLTAGE ACROSS ARC / BREAKER = V SC+  V RC =  5 PU
BREAKER / ARC
R,X
L
VSOURCE X
C
33
 WITH EVERY RESTRIKE  SUCCESSIVE VOLTAGE BUILD UP
 POTENTIAL FOR VERY HIGH VOLTAGES  INSULATION FAILURE
 IN ACTUAL PRACTICE, OVER VOLTAGE LESS ( 3 to 4 PU )


DUE TO PRESENCE OF FINITE RESISTANCE IN THE CIRCUIT

INCREASED SYSTEM DAMPING
34
2.5 GROUND FAULT DETECTION IN UNGROUNDED SYSTEM

 SENSING QUANTITY : CAN BE ONLY VOLTAGE AS CURRENT
IS LOW
 VOLTAGE  SYSTEM WIDE ATTRIBUTE

 NOT LIMITED TO INDIVIDUAL FEEDERS LIKE
CURRENT
 GROUND FAULT DETECTION POSSIBLE

GROUND FAULT LOCATION DIFFICULT
35
 TO LOCATE GROUND FAULT (e.g. FAULT IS ON FEEDER F3 )

FURTHER WORK REQUIRED
F1 F2 F3 R
Y
B
FAULT
36
2.5 GROUND FAULT DETECTION

 METHOD 1 : OPEN DELTA PT ( PREFERRED )
• FIG 2_6_A
 UNGROUNDED SYSTEM
VD = (VR + VY + VB) = 3VO = 3 VL-L = 3 * 6600 = 11,430 Volts
S1 S2
 VOLTAGE ACROSS RELAY = ---- ---- (VR + VY + VB)
T1 T2
(110 / 3) (110/3)
VD = --------------- ----------- 11430 = 63.5 Volts
(6600/ 3) 110
 IF AUXILIARY TRANSFORMER RATIO IS 110 / (110 / 3),
VD = 110 Volts
RELAY RATED FOR 63.5V AND WIRED FOR ALARM
CAN NOT BE USED IN THIS CASE 45
37
 PREFERRED RATIO FOR AUX. TRANSFORMER : 110 / (110 / 3)
2.5 GROUND FAULT DETECTION

 METHOD 2 : SINGLE PT ( NOT PREFERRED )
R
Y
B
U/V O/V
 FAULT ON PHASE 'R'  U / V  UNDER VOLTAGE RELAY

PICKS UP
FAULT ON PHASE 'Y' OR 'B'  O / V  OVER VOLTAGE RELAY
PICKS UP
 UNGROUNDED SYSTEM : FAULT ON PHASE 'R'
 VOLTAGES OF PHASES 'Y' AND 'B' TO GROUND
 3 x NORMAL VALUE 38
 METHOD 2 : SINGLE PT ( NOT PREFERRED )
 NOT RECOMMENDED FOR PRACTICAL IMPLEMENTATION
 PROBLEMS : NEUTRAL INVERSION AND FERRO_RESONANCE
39

• FIG 2_7_A
 VRG , VYG , VBG : PHASE TO GROUND IMPRESSED VOLTAGES
 VNG : NEUTRAL TO GROUND VOLTAGE
 XC : CHARGING CAPACITANCE
 XEX : TRANSFORMER EXCITING (MAGNETISING) REACTANCE
VRG  VNG VRG  VNG VYG  VNG VBG  VNG

--------------  -----------------  --------------  -------------- = 0
j XEX  j XC  j XC  j XC
 WITH VRG  VYG  VBG = 0,

VRG
VNG = ------------------- 40
1  (3 XEX / XC )

 VARIATION OF VNG FOR DIFFERENT VALUES OF XEX / XC
 VNG < 0 OR VNG > 1
 VNG  DOES NOT LIE BETWEEN 0 & 1
 VNG  , WHEN XEX / XC  1 / 3 i.e. XC / XEX  3
 DESTRUCTIVE OVER VOLTAGES STRESSING THE INSULATION
NEUTRAL VOLTAGE VARIATION

2
VN : NEUTRAL VOLTAGE
VN > 1.0
XE/XC = 1/3
1
VRG
VNG = --------------------- XE/XC ( IC/IEX ) x 0.001
0
1  (3 XEX / XC ) 10 100 1000
VN < 0.0
10000
-1
FIG_2_8
-2 41
49

 VNG > 1  NEUTRAL NOT WITH IN VOLTAGE TRIANGLE D

NEUTRAL INVERSION
B
1.0 R
G,N N'
Y 42

 SIMILAR CONCEPT : VN > VA OR VN < VB
• LET VA = 1.0 AND VB = 0 VA

-j X C
1
 VN = -----------------
VN
1– (XC/ XL)
j XL
 IF (XC / XL) < 1 ,  VN > 1 ( i.e. VN > VA )
VB
[ e.g. XC/ XL = 0.2  VN = 1.25 ]
• IF (XC/ XL) > 1 ,  VN < 0 ( i.e. VN < VB )
[ e.g. XC/ XL = 5  VN = - 0.25 ]
• VN DOES NOT LIE BETWEEN VA AND VB 43


• FIG 2_8
 XEX IC CHARGING CAPACITIVE CURRENT
------ = ----- = ---------------------------------------------------
XC IEX EXCITING CURRENT DRAWN BY PT
 IF IC >> IEX  NEUTRAL INVERSION REMOTE
 IF IEX  3 IC  FERRO_RESONANCE BETWEEN SHUNT

CAPACITANCE AND MAGNETISING
(EXCITING) REACTANCE OF PT
 SAME EFFECT IF GROUND FAULT NEUTRALISER
( PETERSON COIL) CONNECTED TO ONE PHASE RATHER
THAN TO NEUTRAL !!
44
2.7 MITIGATING TECHNIQUES FOR FERRO RESONANCE (FR)

 PREFER 3 SWITCHING DEVICE TO AVOID SINGLE PHASING
 DO NOT SWITCH CABLE / LINE & TRANSFORMER TOGETHER
 NO LOAD SWITCHING OF TRANSFORMER MORE SUSCEPTIBLE

TO FERRO RESONANCE THAN WITH LOAD
 CAPACITOR BANKS ON TRANSFORMER SECONDARY :
UNGROUNDED NEUTRAL MORE PRONE TO FERRO
RESONANCE THAN GROUNDED NEUTRAL
 FERRO RESONANCE – VERY UNPREDICTABLE

ANALYSIS AND CORRECTIVE ACTION

MOSTLY AFTER FIRST POSITIVE OCCURRENCE !!
45
2.8 UNGROUNDED SYSTEM APPLICATION

 ALL SYSTEM COMPONENTS DESIGNED FOR THIS
APPLICATION? (e.g. UE GRADE CABLE, 100% LAs, PTs WITH
HIGHER VOL_FAC, … )
 QUALITY OF ELECTRICAL MAINTENANCE

(GOOD OR SATISFACTORY?)
 FIRST GROUND FAULT  PROMPT LOCATION AND

CORRECTION
46
3.0 REASONS FOR GROUNDING

 PROVIDE SUFFICIENT CURRENT FOR SENSING TO ISOLATE
ONLY THE FAULTED SECTION
 LIMIT OVER VOLTAGES APPEARING ON THE SYSTEM DURING

ABNORMAL CONDITIONS LIKE FAULT
 MINIMISE THE SHIFT OF NEUTRAL FROM GROUND

POTENTIAL(0) DURING ABNORMAL CONDITIONS LIKE FAULT
47
3.1 GROUNDING LOCATIONS
 NEUTRAL OF STAR CONNECTED GENERATOR FIG_3_1_A
 NEUTRAL OF STAR WINDING OF TRANSFORMER FIG_3_1_B
 BUS FED FROM UNGROUNDED SOURCE

SPECIAL EQUIPMENT LIKE GROUNDING TRANSFORMER
FIG_3_1_C
48
3.2 GROUNDING METHODS

 SOLID GROUNDING
 RESISTANCE GROUNDING
 REACTANCE (RESONANT) GROUNDING
 ABOVE CLASSIFICATION  NATURE OF EXTERNAL CIRCUIT

FROM NEUTRAL TO GROUND
 ABOVE CLASSIFICATION  DOES NOT REFER TO DEGREE

OF GROUNDING
49
3.3 MEASURE OF GROUNDING EFFECTIVENESS

 EFFECTIVELY GROUNDED SYSTEM
 TRANSIENT OVER VOLTAGES MINIMUM
I1 GROUND FAULT CURRENT

 KF = ------- = -------------------------------------------------
I3 THREE PHASE FAULT CURRENT
 FOR EFFECTIVELY GROUNDED SYSTEMS, KF  0.6
• FIG 3_2
50
 DEFINITION
A SYSTEM OR PORTION OF THE SYSTEM CAN BE SAID TO
BE EFFECTIVELY GROUNDED WHEN FOR ALL POINTS IN THE
SYSTEM OR SPECIFIED PORTION THEROF,
( X0 / X1 ) < 3 AND ( R0 / X1 ) < 1
FOR ANY CONDITION OF OPERATION AND ANY AMOUNT
OF GENERATION CAPACITY.
SYSTEM
A B C
Y
GROUNDED
 SYSTEM MAY BE EFFECTIVELY GROUNDED FOR FAULT AT 'B'
 SAME SYSTEM MAY NOT BE EFFECTIVELY GROUNDED FOR

FAULT AT 'C' 51
 ( X0 / X1 < 3 ) AND ( R0 / X1 ) < 1
 GROUND FAULT CURRENT SUBSTANTIAL
 DURING LINE TO GROUND FAULT

VOLTAGE (LINE to GROUND) < 80% VOLTAGE (LINE to LINE)

PHASE VOLTAGE < 3 x 0.8 = 1.4 NORMAL PHASE VOLTAGE
• NEUTRAL SHIFT MINIMUM
• FIG 3_3
52
 IF SYSTEM SOLIDLY GROUNDED, SECOND RELATION

( R0 / X1 < 1 ) , USUALLY SATISFIED
 GENERATOR : X0 ( 10% ) < X1 ( 25% )
• TRANSFORMER : X0  X1
 FOR EHV LINE : X0 > X1 [ X0 / X1  4 to 5 ]

ONLY AT THE END OF LONG EHV LINE, FIRST RELATION
( X0 / X1 < 3 ) MAY NOT BE SATISFIED
53
 EFFECTIVELY GROUNDED SYSTEM NOT MANDATORY
 NON EFFECTIVELY GROUNDED SYSTEM ALSO ACCEPTABLE
 ALL SYSTEM COMPONENTS SELECTED PROPERLY
 INSULATION COORDINATION IS PROPER
54
4.0 SOLID GROUNDING

 DIRECT CONNECTION OF NEUTRAL TO GROUND
WITHOUT ANY EXPLICIT EXTERNAL ELEMENT LIKE
RESISTOR OR REACTOR
 GENERALLY SOLIDLY  EFFECTIVELY

GROUNDED SYSTEM GROUNDED
 SUFFICIENT GROUND CURRENT FOR RELAYING AND

COORDINATION
 IDENTIFICATION AND LOCATION OF FAULT POSSIBLE
55
4.0 SOLID GROUNDING

• RESIDUALLY CONNECTED CT CONNECTION ADEQUATE
• NORMAL EARTH FAULT RELAY ( RANGE 20 to 80 %)
 GROUND RELAY : RESIDUAL CONNECTION
G FIG_4_1_A
56
[ {20% to 80%} ; {10% to 40%} ]
4.0 SOLID GROUNDING

 PREFERABLE TO SET E / F RELAY AT 80% TO AVOID RELAY
DAMAGE
 FAULTED SECTION HAS TO BE TRIPPED
 LA  RATED FOR 80% (L to L) ACCEPTABLE
 PT  RATED FOR 150% VOLTAGE FACTOR ACCEPTABLE
57
4.0 SOLID GROUNDING

 SINCE GROUND FAULT CURRENT HIGH (KA)  CORE OR
IRON DAMAGE MAY NOT BE ACCEPTABLE IN COSTLY
ROTATING EQUIPMENT LIKE GENERATORS AND HT
MOTORS
 FLOW OF LARGE INTERFERENCE WITH

GROUND CURRENT  COMMUNICATION
(ZERO SEQUENCE CURRENT) CIRCUITS RUNNING IN
FROM FAULT TO SOURCE PARALLEL
58
4.1 GROUNDING , ZERO SEQUENCE AND PHASE ANGLE OF HARMONIC COMPONENTS
HARMONIC A B C PHASE ROTATION

HARMONIC CURRENTS FUNDAMENTAL 0 120 240 (+)VE
THIRD 0 3 x 120 3 x 240 ZERO

( 0 ) ( 0 )
FIFTH 0 5 x 120 5 x 240 ()VE
( 240 ) ( 120 )
SEVENTH 0 7 x 120 7 x 240 (+)VE
( 120 ) ( 240 )
NINTH 0 9 x 120 9 x 240 ZERO
( 0 ) ( 0 )
 (+VE) AND (-VE) SEQUENCE

ELEVENTH 0 11 x 120 11 x 240 ()VE
( 240 ) ( 120 )
THIRTEENTH 0 13 x 120 13 x 240 (+)VE
( 120 ) ( 240 )
FIFTEENTH 0 15 x 120 15 x 240 ZERO
COMPONENTS : GROUNDING SEVENTEENTH 0

( 0 )
17 x 120
(240 )
( 0 )
17 x 240
( 120 )
()VE
NO BEARING 1 0 1 0
1  120 1 0
1  240 1 0
O 3 0
 ZERO SEQUENCE [ (+VE), (-VE) ] SEQUENCE ZERO SEQUENCE
SYMMETRICAL HALF CYCLE : NO EVEN HARMONICS
COMPONENT : DEPENDS
+VE HALF
CYCLE
ON TYPE OF GROUNDING -VE HALF

CYCLE
FIG_
4_2_
B
 UNGROUNDED NEUTRAL : SUPPRESSION OF ZERO

SEQUENCE CURRENT FLOW  APPEARS AS ZERO
SEQUENCE VOLTAGE 59
4.1 GROUNDING , ZERO SEQUENCE AND HARMONIC CURRENTS

 EXAMPLES
 (+VE) SEQUENCE CURRENT : NORMAL LOAD CURRENT
 (-VE) SEQUENCE CURRENT : CURRENT UNDER SINGLE

PHASING
 ZERO SEQUENCE CURRENT (NEUTRAL CURRENT)
 FAULT CURRENT UNDER 1 SHORT CIRCUIT ( 50 Hz )
 EXCITING CURRENT OF TRANSFORMER

( 150 Hz, 3rd HARMONIC )
60
4.2 APPLICATIONS
 LV (415V)
 GENERALLY SOLIDLY GROUNDED
 IE RULES
 IF FOR ANY REASON, IF LV SYSTEM IS NOT SOLIDLY

GROUNDED, SPECIAL PERMISSION FROM ELECTRICAL
INSPECTOR REQUIRED
61
 LV (415V)
 FIG_4_3
 MYTH : EARTH IS GOOD EQUIPMENT GROUNDING

CONDUCTOR
 REALITY : EARTH IS THE MOST UNRELIABLE EQUIPMENT

GROUNDING CONDUCTOR
 BEST EARTH ELECTRODE RESISTANCE  1 
 ON 415 V SYSTEM, IF ONLY EARTH IS USED FOR RETURN OF

FAULT CURRENT,
MAX  (415/3) / 1
MAX  240 AMPS!
 IF FAULT CURRENT IS LIMITED TO 240 A, NEITHER O/C RELAY

NOR FUSE WILL EVER OPERATE ! 62
 LV (415V)
 CONCLUSIONS
 EARTH SHALL NOT BE TREATED AS SOLE EQUIPMENT

GROUNDING CONDUCTOR FOR FAULT CURRENT RETURN PATH
 MAKE AS MANY SUPPLEMENTARY CONNECTION TO EARTH

FROM EQUIPMENT AS YOU WISH
 BUT MAKE SURE THAT ALL EQUIPMENTS ARE CONNECTED TO

GROUNDING GRID (EARTH CONTINUITY) CONDUCTOR WHICH
SHALL BE CONNECTED TO SOURCE NEUTRAL
 MAJORITY OF FAULT CURRENTS SHALL BE CARRIED BY

GROUNDING GRID CONDUCTOR AND VERY LITTLE BY 'MOTHER'
EARTH
• IF EARTH CURRENT IS LESS, TOUCH POTENTIAL IS ALSO LESS
63
 MV ( 3.3, 6.6, 11 KV )
 SOLIDLY GROUNDED SYSTEM RARELY USED AS

HT MOTORS AND GENERATORS ARE PRESENT
 HV AND EHV (  22 KV)
 GENERALLY SOLIDLY GROUNDED
 NO ROTATING EQUIPMENT DIRECTLY CONNECTED

AT THIS LEVEL
 COST OF INSULATION VERY HIGH
 FAULTS CLEARED WITH IN 2 to 3 CYCLES 64

 RESISTOR CONNECTED BETWEEN NEUTRAL

AND GROUND
 DEPENDING ON VALUE OF LIMITING GROUND FAULT

CURRENT ( IF )
 HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDING (HRG)
 LOW RESISTANCE GROUNDING (LRG)
65
 FOR BOTH HIGH & LOW RESISTANCE GROUNDING
 DURING LINE to GROUND FAULT
 V ( L to GROUND )  3 x NORMAL PHASE VOLTAGE
 ALMOST SAME AS FOR UNGROUNDED SYSTEM
 VOLTAGE RATING OF LA  100% (L to L)
 CABLE  UE GRADE
 TRANSIENT OVER VOLTAGE DUE TO RESTRIKE / ARCING

< 2.5 PU COMPARED TO > 3PU FOR UNGROUNDED SYSTEM
66
5.1 REASONS FOR LIMITING FAULT CURRENT

 REDUCE BURNING AND MELTING IN FAULTED
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
 ROTATING MACHINES : WINDING DAMAGE ACCEPTABLE

CORE DAMAGE NOT ACCEPTABLE
 REDUCE MECHANICAL STRESSES ( FORCE  I2 )
 REDUCE RESTRIKE / ARCING FAULTS
 REDUCE TRANSIENT VOLTAGE RISE COMPARED TO

UNGROUNDED SYSTEM
67
5.2 HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDING (HRG)

 GROUND FAULT CURRENT IF LIMITED TO LESS THAN
10 to 15 A
 FOR IF > 15 A, CORE DAMAGE, COSTLY REPAIR
 USUALLY,
CURRENT THROUGH  SYSTEM CAPACITIVE CHARGING

RESISTOR ( I R) CURRENT ( IC )
 TYPICALLY, IC  9A (3A / PHASE )
68
 FAULT CURRENT AT THE POINT OF FAULT

• FIG 5_1 I
RB
I
RB
B

I Y
UNGROUNDED SYSTEM : RY
IUG = 9 90
R I
RY
I +I
RY RB
R
I I X X
N F C C
 HRG SYSTEM : I
N
I
RY
IF = 9 90 + 9 0 = 13 45

I
N
I FIG_5
RB _1_A
B
IF I
RY
+ I
RB
IUG I
F
IN
N I
N
 RESTRIKE AND ARCING LESS R ,G
WHEN BREAKING IF THAN BR

I
YR
WHEN BREAKING IUG

+ I
YR BR
Y
69

 IUG  POOR POWER FACTOR

AT CURRENT ZERO  VOLTAGE ACROSS GAP HIGH
 CHANCE OF RESTRIKE MORE
 IF  GOOD POWER FACTOR


AT CURRENT ZERO  VOLTAGE ACROSS GAP LOW
 CHANCE OF RESTRIKE LESS
VOLTAGE AT CURRENT ZERO
VOL
I UG
IF
PHI = 450
PHI = 90 0
70

 EXAMPLES
 V LL = 11 kV
 CAPACITIVE CURRENT IC = 10A
 SET RESISTIVE CURRENT IR = IC = 10A
 RESISTANCE ( RG ) = (11,000 /3) / 10 = 635 
 ALTERNATE METHODS FOR INCORPORATING
RESISTANCE RG
 METHOD 1 : DIRECT GROUNDING
N
RG = 635 
71

 METHOD 2 : DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER GROUNDED
N
R'G = 0.9 
11/3 kV / 240V
 USUALLY ADOPTED
 CHEAPER SOLUTION, RESISTOR : LOW , LOW VOLTAGE,
HIGH CURRENT
 TURNS RATIO = TR = VP / VS [ e.g. (11000/3) / 240V = 26.5 ]
 RG = R'G x TR2 [ 635 = 0.9 x 26.52 ]
 VOLTAGE RELAY ACROSS R'G TO SENSE GROUND FAULTS

72
 FAULT CURRENT LOW  LOCATING GROUND FAULT

DIFFICULT
 CORE BALANCE CT (CBCT)
 SENSITIVE EARTH FAULT

CURRENT RELAY G {1% to 10%}
( RANGE 1% to 10 %)
1A RELAY :
RANGE  10 MILLIAMPS to
100 MILLIAMPS
73

 CAUTION : DO NOT EARTH NGR CUBICLE !
FROM TRANSFORMER OR
GENERATOR NEUTRAL
FIG_5_3
BUSHING
SHEET STEEL
RESISTOR ENCLOSURE
STACKS
INSULATOR
INSULATOR
TO TO
EARTH EARTH
GRID GRID
EARTH PIT EARTH

74 PIT
NGR SUPPORT FRAME SOIL LEVEL 90
5.3 LOW RESISTANCE GROUNDING (LRG)
 GROUND FAULT CURRENT ( IF ) LIMITED TO 400 A ( TYPICAL )
 ANOTHER CRITERIA WIDELY USED
 GROUND FAULT CURRENT ( IF ) LIMITED TO

 RATED CURRENT OF SOURCE GENERATOR
 RATED CURRENT OF SOURCE TRANSFORMER
 IF  ENOUGH TO OPERATE GROUND FAULT RELAYS
 RESIDUALLY CONNECTED CT CONNECTION ADEQUATE
 NORMAL EARTH FAULT RELAY ( RANGE 10 to 40 %)
75
5.3 LOW RESISTANCE GROUNDING (LRG)
 RESISTOR DIRECTLY CONNECTED BETWEEN NEUTRAL

AND GROUND
 CURRENT RELAY IN NEUTRAL CIRCUIT POSSIBLE FOR

GROUND FAULT DETECTION
 COMPARED TO HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDING
 CORE DAMAGE AT THE POINT OF FAULT MORE

 MORE SENSITIVE AND SELECTIVE ISOLATION OF
GROUND FAULTS
76

 GROUND FAULT NEUTRALISER (GFN)
 GFN  REACTANCE COIL CONNECTED BETWEEN

NEUTRAL AND GROUND
IRB B
IRB
IRY Y
GFN IRY
XL IRY + IRB
R
IN F XC XC
IN IRY
IRB 77
 FAULT CURRENT AT THE POINT OF FAULT

 UNGROUNDED SYSTEM  CAPACITIVE CURRENT
[ e.g. IU = 7A  +90 ]
 HIGH RESISTANCE  CURRENT WITH GOOD PF

GROUNDED [ e.g. IH = 10A  +45 ]
 RESONANT GROUNDED  RESISTIVE CURRENT

SYSTEM [ e.g. IR = 1A  0 ]
 IR  < IU  < IH 
78

 CURRENT THROUGH GFN (REACTIVE CURRENT)

NEUTRALISES CAPACITIVE CURRENTS FROM HEALTHY PHASES
• FIG_6_1_A
• FIG_6_1_B
IN = IYR + IBR
1 3 1 1
-- = -----   L = -----  L = -----------
xL xC 3c 3 2 c
79

 TYPICAL CHARGING CURRENT = 2A / PHASE
 ASSUME VOLTAGE 11 KV
 XC = (11000 /3) / 2 = 3175 
 XL = XC / 3 = 1058 
 'K' FACTOR OF REACTOR (X / R)  20
 GROUND FAULT CURRENT MINIMUM (THEORETICALLY ZERO)


PURELY RESISTIVE, AT CURRENT ZERO  VOLTAGE ALSO
 ZERO
ARCING GROUND  SELF EXTINGUISHING /
POSSIBILITY OF RESTRIKE REMOTE
80

 SENSITIVITY FOR  GOOD, SUBSTANTIAL VOLTAGE (V0)
FAULT DETECTION AVAILABLE
 REACTOR  TAPS REQUIRED TO BE TUNED AT SITE

CAPACITANCE VARIES WITH CHANGING
NETWORK
 LA : 100% RATED TO BE USED
 TRANSFORMER : GRADED INSULATION CAN NOT BE USED

NEUTRAL SHALL BE FULLY INSULATED
81
 MAIN ARGUEMENT : FAULT CURRENT < 1 to 2 A

FOR USE CORE(IRON) DAMAGE MINIMUM
 PAST EXPERIENCE  FAULT CURRENT EVEN UPTO 10 to 15A,

CORE DAMAGE MINIMUM, ACCEPTABLE
 GFN : USED ONLY IN OLDER SYSTEM

 PRESENTLY ALMOST NOT USED
 RESISTANCE GROUNDED SYSTEM

MORE EXTENSIVELY USED
82

7.1 ZIG – ZAG TRANSFORMER
• FIG 7_1_A
 EACH CORE  TWO WINDINGS


CAN BE CONSIDERED AS PRIMARY & SECONDARY
 WINDINGS CONNECTED SUCH THAT
PRIMARY CARRIES CURRENT OF ONE PHASE (SAY R)

AND
SECONDARY CARRIES CURRENT OF DIFFERENT
PHASE (SAY Y)
83

 CAN (+VE) SEQUENCE CURRENT FLOW ?
 THREE LINE CURRENTS  IR = 10 ; IY = 1-120 ; IB = 1120
 PRIMARY WINDING ON CORE 1 CARRIES IR = 10

AND
SECONDARY WINDING ON CORE 1 CARRIES IY = 1-120
 BUT TRANSFORMER THEORY DEMANDS THAT

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CURRENTS MUST BE IN
PHASE AND EQUAL (in PU)
 THIS CAN NEVER BE SATISFIED WITH THE ABOVE

CONNECTION.
 THE ZIG-ZAG CONNECTION OFFERS VERY HIGH
IMPEDANCE TO FLOW OF (+VE) SEQUENCE CURRENT 84
 UNDER NORMAL BALANCED SUPPLY


CURRENT DRAWN VERY LOW (ONLY EXCITING CURRENT)
 SIMILARLY THE DEVICE OFFERS VERY HIGH IMPEDANCE

TO FLOW OF (-VE) SEQUENCE CURRENT
85

 CAN ZERO SEQUENCE CURRENT FLOW ?
 THREE LINE CURRENTS I0 , I0 AND I0

EQUAL IN PHASE AND MAGNITUDE
 CURRENT FLOW IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY  I0 AND I0
 TRANSFORMER THEORY PERMITS THE FLOW OF CURRENTS
 IMPEDANCE : CONVENTIONAL ZERO SEQUENCE

OFFERED LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE
 FACILITATES FLOW OF ZERO  PROVIDES GROUNDING
SEQUENCE CURRENT IN UNGROUNDED SYSTEM
(GROUND FAULT CURRENT)
 GROUND FAULT CURRENT CAN BE LIMITED BY

86
PROVIDING NGR

 VOLTAGE VECTOR DIAGRAM
 E : LINE to LINE VOLTAGE
 VOLTAGE ACROSS EACH WINDING = E / 3
 CURRENT CARRIED BY EACH WINDING = I0 = IF / 3
R
E/3
E/3
E/3
B Y
E 87
 GROUNDING TRANSFORMER
RATING (MVA) = 3 E I0 = (E/3) IF
 ZERO SEQUENCE LEAKAGE REACTANCE (X0) EXPRESSED
ON ABOVE MVA BASE

 X0  20% to 100%
 IF X0 = 20% , NGR MAY BE REQIRED TO LIMIT FAULT
CURRENT
 IF X0 = 100% , NGR MAY NOT BE REQIRED TO
LIMIT FAULT CURRENT
 NORMALLY RATED FOR 10 SEC

 COST << COMPARED TO SAME RATING OF
CONVENTIONAL TRANSFORMER ( 10% to 15% )

88
 TYPICAL CURRENT DISTRIBUTION

• FIG 7_2
 FAULT CURRENT = IF = 3I0 = (6600 /3) / 250 = 15.3 A
CURRENT THROUGH CURRENT THROUGH

ZIG ZAG = TWO PHASES OF DELTA = I0 = 5.1 A
MAIN TRANSFORMER TURNS RATIO = T = 6600 / (415/ 3) = 27.5
CURRENT ON SOURCE (STAR) SIDE = 5.1 x 27.5 = 141 A
 LINE TO GROUND  LINE TO LINE  IN PRESENCE OF
FAULT DELTA FAULT ON GROUNDING XR
SIDE STAR SIDE
 GROUNDING OF SOURCE OR PRIMARY NEUTRAL  IMMATERIAL
 AS REFLECTED FAULT CURRENT  LINE to LINE
 CONVERSE  FIG_13_4_A
89
 GROUNDING TRANSFORMER SIZING : TYPICAL CALCULATIONS

• FIG 7_3_A
 BASE MVA : 10  IB = BASE CURRENT = 10 / (3 x 11) = 0.5249 KA
 GENERATOR
 X(+VE) = X1 = X'd = 0.25 x (10 / 4) = 0.625 PU
 X(-VE) = X2 = X1 = 0.625 PU
 TRANSFORMER
 X(+VE) = X1 = 0.08 x (10 / 5.5) = 0.1455 PU
 X(-VE) = X2 = X1 = 0.1455 PU
 GROUNDING TRANSFORMER ( ZIG ZAG )
X(+VE) = X(-VE) = 
Z0 = R0 + j X0
 ZPOS = ZNEG = j(0.625 + 0.1455) = j0.7705
 ZZER = R0 + j X0 90
 GROUNDING TRANSFORMER SIZING : TYPICAL CALCULATIONS

 ASSUME NO EXTERNAL RESISTANCE CONNECTED BETWEEN
GROUNDING TRANSFORMER NEUTRAL AND GROUND
i.e. R0 = 0
 FOR EFFECTIVE GROUNDING
X0 R0
---- < 3 & ----- < 1
X1 X1
 R0 = 0  SECOND EXPRESSION ALWAYS SATISFIED
 CHOOSE X0 = 3 X1 = 3 x 0.7705 = j 2.3115
(ON CHOSEN 10 MVA BASE)
1
 I0 = -------------------------------------- = -j 0.2596 PU
j( 0.7705 + 0.7705 + 2.3115 )
 FAULT CURRENT IF =3 I0= 0.7788 PU = 0.7788 x 524.9  408.8
91 A
108
 GROUNDING TRANSFORMER SPECIFICATION
 SIZE = VL- N x IF = (11 / 3 ) x 0.4088 = 2.5962 MVA
 IMPEDANCE = X0 = 2.3115 x (2.5962 / 10) = 0.6001
 SUMMARY
TYPE : ZIG ZAG GROUNDING TRANSFORMER
VOLTAGE : 11 KV (L to L)
MVA RATING : 2.6
TIME RATING : 10 SEC
ZERO SEQUENCE REACTANCE : 60%
 TIME RATING = 10 SEC  EARTH FAULT CLEARED

WITH IN 10 SEC 92
 NORMALLY USED WHEN SPARE

STAR – D TRANSFORMER
AVAILABLE
 COSTLIER THAN ZIG ZAG

TRANSFORMER I0
I0 I0 I0
I0
I0
R
IF = 3I 0
93
 UNDER NORMAL OPERATING

CONDITIONS
 D SIDE  UNLOADED, 0
0 0 0
NOT SERVING
ANY LOAD
0
R 0
 CURRENT DRAWN  IF =0
ONLY EXCITING CURRENT
 VERY LOW
 FOR (+VE) AND (-VE) SEQUENCE QUANTITIES

IMPEDANCE OFFERED IS EXCITING IMPEDANCE
VERY HIGH
94
 UNDER 1 GROUND FAULT CONDITIONS

 FAULT CURRENT 
ZERO SEQUENCE CURRENT
I0
I0 I0 I0
 PATH AVAILABLE FOR FLOW
OF ZERO SEQUENCE I0
R I0
CURRENT FLOW
IF =3I0
 I0 FLOWS IN THREE PHASES OF STAR
 EQUIVALENT I0 CAN FLOW IN CLOSED DELTA
 IMPEDANCE OFFERED  Z L CONVENTIONAL LEAKAGE
REACTANCE
 Z(+ve) = Z(-ve) =  ; Z(zero) = Z L
 GROUND FAULT CURRENT  LIMITED BY PROVIDING NGR
95
 RESISTOR PROVIDED ON STAR NEUTRAL
 BUS VOLTAGE : 6.6 KV (L to L)

 NGR : 250 
• FIG_7_4_A
 NEUTRAL IMPEDANCE IN PU = ZACT / ZBASE

ZACT : ACTUAL IMPEDANCE IN 
ZBASE = kV2 / MVA3
kV : LINE to LINE VOLTAGE OF STAR CIRCUIT
MVA3 = SYSTEM BASE MVA ( 3 )
 VOLTAGE RATING OF STAR WINDING : (L to G) : 6.6 /3 kV

 IF = 3I0 = (6600 /3) / 250 = 15.3 A
 I0 = 5.1 A 96
 RESISTOR PROVIDED ON DELTA
 VOLTAGE RATIO 6600V / 415 V
 I0 ON STAR SIDE = 5.1 A
 TURNS RATIO = I0 I0 I0 I0
I0
(6600 / 3) / 415 = 9.18 3V 0 R
 I0 ON DELTA SIDE
I0
= 5.1 x 9.18
IF = 3I 0
= 46.8 A
 RESISTANCE ON D SIDE = ( 3 x 415 ) / 46.8 = 26.6 
 VOLTAGE RATING OF STAR WINDING : (L to L) : 6.6 KV 97

 RESISTOR PROVIDED ON DELTA

 FIG_7_4_B
 NEUTRAL IMPEDANCE IN PU = ZACT / ZBASE
ZACT : ACTUAL IMPEDANCE IN 
ZBASE = KV2 / MVA1
KV : LINE to LINE VOLTAGE OF D CIRCUIT
MVA1 = SYSTEM BASE MVA PER PHASE

 IN GENERAL, RD = 27 x TV2 x RS
RD = RESISTOR VALUE ON DELTA SIDE IN 
RS = RESISTOR VALUE ON STAR NEUTRAL IN 
TV = VOLTAGE RATIO = VDL-L / VSL-L [ e.g. 415 / 6600 ]

 EVEN THOUGH PRIMARY NEUTRAL SOLIDLY GROUNDED
 BEHAVES LIKE RESISTANCE GROUNDED SYSTEM !
98

• FIG 8_1
 BUS FED FROM UNGROUNDED SOURCE
 FEEDER#1 : TIE FEEDER
 FEEDER#2 : TRANSFORMER FEEDER (STAR – DELTA)

DELTA : FEEDING LOADS
99

• FIG_8_1
 DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER ON FEEDER#2 ALSO

PROVIDES GROUNDING FOR UNGROUNDED BUS
 TRANSFORMER  MAY NOT HAVE BEEN INTENDED FOR

GROUNDING AT DESIGN STAGE !!
 CONCEPT  SAME AS GROUNDING THROUGH STAR - D

TRANSFORMER DISCUSSED PREVIOUSLY
100
9.0 SUMMARY OF COMPARISON : DIFFERENT

GROUNDING METHODS
 TABLE 9_1
101

EHV BUS
 CASE 1
 ADVANTAGES T1 T2
G1 G2
 GROUND FAULT CURRENT
N1 N2
SUPPLIED BY THE
STATION LIMITED BY NGR
THE COMMON RESISTOR

 ALMOST SAME VALUE OF GROUND FAULT CURRENT
IRRESPECTIVE OF NUMBER OF GENERATORS
 LEADS TO SIMPLIFIED GROUND RELAYING

( USE OF DMT RELAYS )
102

 CASE 1 EHV BUS
T1 T2
G1 G2
N1 N2
NGR
 DISADVANTAGE
 SINCE NEUTRALS OF MACHINES INTERCONNECTED

WITH LOW /ZERO IMPEDANCE, HIGH ZERO SEQUENCE
CURRENT CIRCULATION BETWEEN MACHINES POSSIBLE
103

 CASE 2
 IN MAJORITY OF POWER STATIONS THIS GROUNDING
SCHEME USED
 ALL RESISTORS ARE NORMALLY IN SERVICE AND
NEUTRALS CLOSED
 ZERO SEQUENCE CURRENT CIRCULATION VERY LOW
 LIMITED BY RESISTORS IN THE NEUTRAL CIRCUIT
EHV BUS OF MACHINES
GT1 GT2
G1 G2
N1 N2
NGR NGR
104

 CASE 3
 IN SOME STATIONS, THE NEUTRALS KEPT FLOATING,
BUT BUS GROUNDED THROUGH COMMON GROUNDING
TRANSFORMER USUALLY ZIG ZAG CONNECTED
TERMINAL BUS
G1 G2
N1 N2 NGR
ZIG ZAG
GROUNDING
TRANSFORMER 105

 CASE 4
 LT GENERATORS – 'GENERALLY' SOLIDLY GROUNDED
 CIRCULATING HARMONIC CURRENTS ( 5th, 7th, 11th …)
BETWEEN MACHINES FLOW IRRESPECTIVE OF
NEUTRALS INTERCONNECTED OR NOT
 FORTUNATELY MAGNITUDE OF THESE VERY LESS

TERMINAL BUS 415 VOLTS
G1 G2
N1 N2
ISOLATING DEVICE
106

 CASE 4
 CIRCULATING HARMONIC CURRENTS
( 3rd & MULTIPLES OF 3rd ) BETWEEN MACHINES
FLOW ONLY WHEN MORE THAN ONE NEUTRAL
GROUNDED
 3rd HARMONIC CURRENT  ZERO SEQUENCE CURRENT
 IF ALL NEUTRALS GROUNDED, ZERO SEQUENCE
CURRENT CIRCULATION HIGH
G1 G2
N1 N2
ISOLATING DEVICE
107

 CASE 4
 ONLY ONE NEUTRAL KEPT CLOSED  PROVIDES RETURN
PATH FOR GROUND FAULT CURRENT
 NEUTRAL ISOLATION DEVICE

(BREAKER / CONTACTOR / SWITCH ) FOR EACH
GENERATOR REQUIRED
G1 G2
N1 N2
ISOLATING DEVICE
108
11.0 NEUTRAL GROUNDING – PHASE AND LINE

VOLTAGES
 DEPENDING ON TYPE OF GROUNDING 
PHASE AND LINE VOLTAGES CHANGE DURING FAULTED
CONDITION
 TYPICAL POWER PLANT AUXILIARY SYSTEM
 FIG_11_1
 NGR OF UAT VARIED TO SIMULATE DIFFERENT GROUNDINGS

 FROM UNGROUNDED TO SOLIDLY GROUNDED
109
 ANALYSIS DONE USING SEQUENCE COMPONENTS
 UNDER BALANCED OPERATING B
CONDITION
 PHASE VOLTAGES
G
VR  = VY  = VB  = 1.0 N R
 LINE VOLTAGES
VRY  = VYB  = VBR  = 3
Y
 OPEN DELTA VOLTAGE : VD = VR + VY + VB = 0
110
 FAULT CONDITION : FAULT ON PHASE A

 NEUTRAL : SOLIDLY GROUNDED
B
 FAULT CURRENT = 8.5kA
 HEALTHY BUS PHASE VOLTAGES
VY AND VB  NEAR NORMAL
VY  1  -120o ; VB  1  120o G
 LINE VOLTAGES VRY  AND VBR  N R
FALLS FROM 3 to 1.0 PU.
 LINE VOLTAGE VYB  NO CHANGE,
AS FAULT IS ON PHASE A
Y
 LINE VOLTAGE TRIANGLE : ISOSCELES
 OPEN DELTA VOLTAGE : VD = 1.0 PU ( PHASE VOLTAGE)
 NEUTRAL VOLTAGE WRT GROUND = 0.33 VPHASE 111

 NEUTRAL : HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDED B
 FAULT CURRENT  10 AMPS
 ALMOST UNGROUNDED SYSTEM G

N
R
 HEALTHY BUS PHASE VOLTAGES
VY  AND VB  RISE FROM 1 to 3

Y
 LINE VOLTAGES VRY , VYB AND VBR  NO CHANGE
 LINE VOLTAGE TRIANGLE : EQUILATERAL
 OPEN DELTA VOLTAGE : VD = 3.0 PU
( 3 TIMES PHASE VOLTAGE)
 NEUTRAL VOLTAGE WRT GROUND = 1.0 PU

112
 NEUTRAL : LOW RESISTANCE GROUNDED

 FAULT CURRENT > FOR HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDED (10A)
< FOR SOLIDLY GROUNDED (8543A)
FAULT CURRENT = 3480A B
 CHANGES IN BOTH :
PHASE VOLTAGES VY AND VB
LINE VOLTAGES VRY AND VBR
N
 LINE VOLTAGE VYB  NO CHANGE G
R
 LINE VOLTAGE TRIANGLE :

CLOSE TO EQUILATERAL Y
 OPEN DELTA VOLTAGE : VD = 2.5 to 3.0 PU

NEARLY THE SAME AS FOR UNGROUNDED OR
113
HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDED SYSTEM
 FAULT CURRENT VS VOLTAGE
• FIG 11_3
 VARY NGR VALUE AND CALCULATE

FAULT CURRENT
MINIMUM LINE VOLTAGE VLMIN
OPEN DELTA VOLTAGE VD
 VD - NEARLY 3.0 FOR THE ENTIRE RANGE FROM

UNGROUNDED to LOW RESISTANCE GROUNDED REGION.
FALLS RAPIDLY ONLY WHEN APPROACHING SOLIDLY

GROUNDED REGION
114
 VLMIN  - LINE VOLTAGE NEARLY 3 FOR THE ENTIRE RANGE

FROM UNGROUNDED to LOW RESISTANCE GROUNDED
REGION.
FALLS RAPIDLY ONLY WHEN APPROACHING SOLIDLY
GROUNDED REGION
 FAULT CURRENT FOR SOLIDLY GROUNDED NEUTAL : 8543 A
115
 ASSUME UNDER VOLTAGE RELAYS CONNECTED BETWEEN

LINES INSTEAD OF LINE TO GROUND.
 UNDER VOLTAGE RELAY SETTING : 70% ( SAY )
 RELAY WILL NOT PICK UP UNTIL FAULT CURRENT > 5000 A
 EVEN WITH SOLIDLY GROUNDED NEUTRAL, FAULT

CURRENT CAN BECOME LOWER THAN 5000A FOR
ARCING FAULTS
 ARCING FAULT WITH SOLIDLY GROUNDED NEUTRAL 

RESISTANCE GROUNDED NEUTRAL AND SOLID FAULT
116

MORAL !!!
 UNGROUNDED, HIGH / LOW RESISTANCE GROUNDED
SYSTEM
 ABSURD TO CONNECT UNDERVOLTAGE RELAYS
BETWEEN LINES
 CONNECT THE RELAYS ONLY BETWEEN LINE AND
GROUND
 SOLIDLY GROUNDED SYSTEM
 PREFERABLE TO CONNECT THE RELAYS
BETWEEN LINE AND GROUND FOR POSITIVE
PICK UP EVEN FOR FAULTS WITH RESISTANCE
CONNECT UNDER VOLTAGE RELAYS ONLY BETWEEN LINE AND GROUND

117
138

 (+VE) SEQUENCE VOLTAGE
HIGH  AT SOURCE (e.g. 1.0 PU)
SOURCES (SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES)
PRODUCE ONLY (+VE) SEQUENCE VOLTAGE.
LOW  AT POINT OF DISTURBANCE (e.g. 0 PU)
FOR EXAMPLE, AT FAULT POINT,
(+VE) SEQUENCE VOLTAGE IS ZERO.
S NETWORK
F
(+VE)
S F 118

 ZERO SEQUENCE VOLTAGE
HIGH  AT POINT OF DISTURBANCE
LOW  AT SOURCE ; SOURCES(SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES)
DO NOT PRODUCE ZERO SEQUENCE VOLTAGE
 (-VE) SEQUENCE VOLTAGE
 SAME AS ZERO SEQUENCE VOLTAGE
 FOR FAULT AT 'F', ZERO SEQUENCE VOLTAGE RELAY

AT 'P' , AWAY FROM FAULT, MAY NOT PICK UP
S NETWORK
F
(ZERO)
(-VE)
119
S P F
13.0 NEUTRAL GROUNDING – FAIRY TALES

FAULT CURRENT RETURNS TO ANY TRANSFORMER NEUTRAL ?
120

 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER OPERATION
 AMPERE TURNS BALANCE
 IPRI x TPRI  ISEC x TSEC
 IF THIS RELATIONSHIP CAN NOT BE SATISFIED DUE TO

PHYSICAL CONNECTIONS, NO CURRENT WILL FLOW
Ia TA IA
IN TC
Ta
Ib Tb
Tc IC
TB
I IB
c
IF 121

 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER OPERATION
 AMPERE TURNS BALANCE :

IA TA  Ia Ta ; IB T B  I b T b ; IC TC  Ic Tc
 KCL HAS TO BE SATISFIED

IA + IB + IC = IN FAULT CURRENT RETURNING TO NEUTRAL
Ia TA IA
IN TC
Ta
Ib Tb
Tc IC
TB
Ic IB
IF 122
 CASE 1
 ABSENCE OF PRIMARY NEUTRAL GROUNDING
 NO CURRENT CAN FLOW ON SECONDARY SIDE
 FAULT CURRENT IS ZERO EVEN WHEN NEUTRAL IS GROUNDED !!
 BEHAVES LIKE  UNGROUNDED SYSTEM
SOURCE TRANSFORMER
123
 CASE 2
 BOTH PRIMARY AND SECONDARY NEUTRALS GROUNDED
 FOR FAULT CURRENT RETURNING THROUGH SECONDARY

NEUTRAL, EQUIVALENT CURRENT THROUGH PRIMARY
NEUTRAL CAN FLOW
 BUT CAN THIS CURRENT ACTUALLY FLOW ?

SOURCE TRANSFORMER
F 124
 CASE 2
 NO ! : PRIMARY NEUTRAL CURRENT DOES NOT HAVE

RETURN PATH AS SOURCE IS UNGROUNDED
 FAULT CURRENT IS ZERO EVEN WHEN BOTH NEUTRALS

GROUNDED !!
 AGAIN BEHAVES LIKE  UNGROUNDED SYSTEM

SOURCE TRANSFORMER
F 125
 CASE 3
 BOTH PRIMARY AND SECONDARY NEUTRALS GROUNDED
AND SOURCE ALSO GROUNDED
 CURRENTS CAN FLOW IN BOTH THE SECONDARY AND
PRIMARY SIDES OF TRANSFORMER AND SATISFY :
AMPERE TURNS BALANCE AND KCL
 BEHAVES LIKE  TRULY GROUNDED SYSTEM
SOURCE TRANSFORMER
0 0
0 0
Ia IA
126
149
IF
 CASE 4
 TRANSFORMER SECONDARY NEUTRAL GROUNDED
THROUGH RESISTANCE
 TRANSFORMER PRIMARY NEUTRAL AND SOURCE SOLIDLY
GROUNDED
 CURRENTS CAN FLOW IN BOTH THE SECONDARY AND
PRIMARY SIDES OF TRANSFORMER
SOURCE TRANSFORMER
0 0
0 0
Ia R IA
127
F 150
 CASE 4
 GROUND FAULT CURRENT ON SECONDARY SIDE LIMITED

BY NGR VALUE
 ONLY THE EQUIVALNT REFLECTED CURRENT OF
REDUCED SECONDARY CURRENT FLOWS ON THE PRIMARY
SIDE, EVEN THOUGH PRIMARY NEUTRAL AND SOURCE
NEUTRAL ARE SOLIDLY GROUNDED
SOURCE TRANSFORMER
0 0
0 0
Ia R IA
128
F 151
 CASE 4
 EXAMPLE : TRANSFORMER 11 KV / 6.6 KV, NGR = 38
GROUND FAULT CURRENT
ON SECONDARY SIDE = (6600 /3) / 38 = 100 A
EQUIVALENT CURRENT
ON PRIMARY SIDE = 100 * 6.6 / 11 = 60A
SOURCE TRANSFORMER
0 0
0 0
Ia R IA
129
60 A 100 A IF 152
 CASE 5
 TRANSFORMER SECONDARY NEUTRAL AND SOURCE

GROUNDED THROUGH RESISTANCE
 TRANSFORMER PRIMARY NEUTRAL SOLIDLY GROUNDED
 CURRENTS CAN FLOW IN BOTH THE SECONDARY
AND PRIMARY SIDES OF TRANSFORMER
SOURCE TRANSFORMER
0 0
0 0
Ia R IA
I F130
155
 CASE 5
 GROUND FAULT CURRENT ON SECONDARY SIDE LIMITED
BY NGR VALUE
 THE EQUIVALNT REFLECTED CURRENT ON THE PRIMARY
SIDE ENCOUNTERS ANOTHER NGR ON SOURCE SIDE
 OVERALL EFFECT : FAULT CURRENT REDUCES
SUBSTANTIALLY
SOURCE TRANSFORMER
0 0
0 0
Ia R IA
I 131
F 156
 CASE 5
 EXAMPLE : TRANSFORMER 11 KV / 6.6 KV, NGR = 38

SOURCE NGR = 64 
 GROUND FAULT CURRENT ON SOURCE SIDE = 100 A
 GROUND FAULT CURRENT ON SECONDARY SIDE = 62 A
EQUIVALENT CURRENT ON PRIMARY SIDE = 37A

SOURCE TRANSFORMER
0 0
0 0
Ia R IA
100 A
37 A 62 A I132
F
157
 CASE 6
 TRANSFORMER  D - STAR GROUNDED
 LINE TO GROUND FAULT ON STAR SIDE

 LINE TO LINE FAULT ON D SIDE
Ia 0 0
IN 0
0
IA
IF
133
 CASE 6
 RELAYS RESPONDING TO FAULT
 STAR SIDE
 PHASE RELAY ON FAULTED PHASE
 GROUND RELAY
 DELTA SIDE
 PHASE RELAYS ON TWO PHASES
[ GROUND RELAY DOES NOT PICK UP ! ]
Ia 0 0
IN 0
0
IA
134
IF 159
 CASE 6
 VOLTAGE VECTORS
 STAR SIDE  NEUTRAL SHIFT ( VNG  0)
 DELTA SIDE  NO NEUTRAL SHIFT ( VNG = 0)
NO NEUTRAL SHIFT  DOES NOT NECESSARILY MEAN

VOLTAGES ARE BALANCED!
DELTA STAR
R
B
VR = 1.0 VR = 0
VY = 0.51 VY = 0.88
N G
VB = 0.51 R VB = 0.88
VNG = 0 G VNG = 0.11
N 135
B Y Y
 CASE 7
 TRANSFORMER
 STAR GROUNDED [P]  D [T]  STAR GROUNDED [S]
D - TERTIARY WINDING, USUALLY DESIGNED TO CARRY ONLY
ZERO SEQUENCE CURRENTS UNDER NORMAL
CONDITIONS – UNLOADED – NO CURRENT
 SOURCE UNGROUNDED OR PRIMARY NEUTRAL UNGROUNDED
 RESULTS SAME
TRANSFORMER
SOURCE P T S
0 0
0
136
 CASE 7
 TYPICAL CURRENT(PU) DISTRIBUTION SHOWN FOR

FAULT ON SECONDARY SIDE
 AMPERE  TURNS BALANCE AND KCL SATISFIED
 NO CURRENT THROUGH PRIMARY NEUTRAL 
SOURCE UNGROUNDED
TRANSFORMER
SOURCE P T S
2 2 1 1
0 0
0 3
1 1 3
1 1
1
IF137
=3
162
 CASE 7
 SECONDARY SIDE
 GROUND RELAY
 PRIMARY SIDE
 PHASE RELAYS ON ALL THREE PHASES
[ GROUND RELAY DOES NOT PICK UP ]
TRANSFORMER
SOURCE P T S
2 2 1 1
0 0
0 3
1 1 3
1 1
1 138
IF = 3 163
 CASE 8
 FIG13_5_B
 TRANSFORMER
 STAR GROUNDED [P]  D [T]  STAR GROUNDED [S]
 SOURCE ALSO GROUNDED
 TYPICAL CURRENT(PU) DISTRIBUTION SHOWN FOR FAULT

ON SECONDARY SIDE
 AMPERE  TURNS BALANCE AND KCL SATISFIED
139
 CASE 8
 BECAUSE OF PRESENCE OF D TERTIARY
CURRENT(PU) THROUGH PRIMARY NEUTRAL
LESS THAN
CURRENT(PU) THROUGH SECONDARY NEUTRAL
 PART OF GROUND FAULT CURRENT REFLECTED IN
TERTIARY AND CIRCULATES
 CURRENT DIVISION BETWEEN D TERTIARY AND PRIMARY
 ZERO SEQUENCE LEAKAGE REACTANCE BETWEEN
(PRIMARY to TERIARY) & ( SECONDARY to TERTIARY)
 IF NO DATA AVAILABLE, ASSUME
 50% OF TOTAL SECONDARY FAULT CURRENT FLOWS
IN DELTA
140
 REMAINING 50% FLOWS IN THE PRIMARY NEUTRAL
 CASE 8
 SECONDARY SIDE
 GROUND RELAY
 PRIMARY SIDE
 PHASE RELAYS ON ALL THREE PHASES
 GROUND RELAY
141
 CASE 8
 FAULT LEVEL STUDIES AND RELAY COORDINATION
EXERCISE
 USUAL ASSUMPTION
PU FAULT CURRENT ON = PU FAULT CURRENT ON
SECONDARY SIDE PRIMARY SIDE
• ABOVE CAN BE GROSSLY WRONG IN PRESENCE OF

DTERTIARY
• FOR FAULT ON SECONDARY SIDE, GROUND FAULT

RELAY ON PRIMARY SIDE SENSES MUCH LOWER
CURRENT THAN SET FOR.
• FOR FINE TUNING RELAY COORDINATION STUDIES,

THIS SHALL BE TAKEN CARE OFF
142
 CASE 9
 SYSTEM CONSIDERED FOR SIMULATION

 FIG 13_6_A
 G1 : 30.625 MVA, X'd = 13.6%
 G2 : 13.125 MVA, X'd = 25%
 NGR R1 = R2 = R3 = 15.88 
 GROUND FAULT CURRENT LIMITED TO

[ (11000 /3) / 15.88 = 400 A ]
143
 CASE 9
 TRANSFORMER : 220 / 11 / 3.3 kV [ H – L – T ]
REACTANCE ON 30 MVA BASE

H – L : 12.1 %
L – T : 21.2 %
H – T : 36.3 %
 220 KV O/H LINE : IMPEDANCE ON 10 MVA BASE

Z (+VE) = 0.00008 + j 0.00045
Z(zero) = 0.00033 + j 0.00115
 SYSTEM FAULT LEVEL : F(3) = F(1) = 2983 MVA
144
 CASE 9
 GENERATING SOURCE AT ONE END & SYSTEM AT

OTHER END
 LV SIDE (11 kV) OF TRANSFORMER

 RESISTANCE GROUNDED : IFAULT < 400 A
 FOR 1 to GROUND FAULT ON 220 kV SIDE,
 CONTRIBUTION FROM SOURCE SIDE :

 400 x 11 / 220 = 20 A ?
 ABOVE NOT CORRECT 
BECAUSE OF PRESENCE OF D TERTIARY
145
 CASE 9
 RESULTS OF ANALYSIS USING SEQUENCE COMPONENTS

• FIG 13_7
 TOTAL FAULT CURRENT IF = 310 x 26.25 = 8.1 kA
 ZERO SEQUENCE CURRENT CONTRIBUTION
 FROM SYSTEM SIDE (220 kV) = 8.3 x 26.25 = 218 A

THIS CURRENT >> 20A ANTICIPATED EARLIER
NOTE : THIS CURRENT IS ALMOST REACTIVE!
 FROM SOURCE SIDE (11 kV) = 0.1 x 525 = 53 A

NOTE : THIS CURRENT IS RESISTIVE! 146
 CASE 9
 MOST PROBABLE RELAYS TO PICK UP
GROUND RELAY ON 220 kV SIDE
PHASE RELAYS ON 11 kV SIDE
 FOR 220 kV FAULTS, IN SPITE OF NGR ON 11 kV SIDE

BEHAVIOUR  SOLIDLY GROUNDED SYSTEM
 CAUSE
PRESENCE OF D TERTIARY!
147
 CASE 9
 VOLTAGE ON 220 kV SIDE (SOLIDLY GROUNDED)
| VY | = | VB | = | VRY | = | VBR | = V D  1.0

B
G
N R
Y 148
 CASE 10
 CAN FAULT CURRENT FLOW AHEAD OF THE FAULT ?
SYSTEM F Yg D Yg
Yg
GROUNDED 220kV R
11kV
 EVEN WITHOUT SOURCE ON 11 kV SIDE,

FOR FAULT AT 'F', CAN RELAY AT LOCATION
'R' PICK UP ?
149
 CASE 10
 COMMON PERCEPTION  RELAY CAN NOT SENSE ?
 NO! RELAY CAN SENSE IF TRANSFORMER HAS
STAR GROUNDED D SECONDARY OR TERTIARY

PRIMARY + FOR ZERO SEQ CURRENT
CIRCULATION
SYSTEM F Yg D Yg
Yg
GROUNDED 220kV R
11kV
150
 CASE 10
 CURRENT SENSED BY GROUND FAULT RELAY AT

LOCATION 'R'
3I0 = 8.1 PU = 8.1 x 26.25 = 213 A

TRANSFORMER
SYSTEM R P(220) T S(11)
-j 2.7 -j 2.7 -j 2.7
-j 2.7
-j 2.7
-j 298.3 -j 2.7
-j 292.9 -j 8.1 (213A)
IF = -j 301 151
 CASE 10
 NORMALLY ONE EXPECTS THE RELAY TO PICK UP ONLY
FOR FAULTS DOWN THE TRANSFORMER.
 IF THE SETTING IS LOW, IT CAN PICK UP FOR EVEN FOR

FAULTS AHEAD OF TRANSFORMER
 AGAIN THE CAUSE  PRESENCE OF D TERTIARY

TRANSFORMER
-j 2.7 -j 2.7 -j 2.7
-j 2.7
-j 2.7
-j 298.3 -j 2.7
-j 292.9 -j 8.1 (213A) 152
I F = -j 301 179
 CASE 10
 REACTANCE OF HV (220 kV) to TERTIARY IS HIGH
( 36.3% IN PRESENT CASE )
 THE CURRENT IS LIMITED TO 213 A
 IF THE REACTANCE IS LOW, CURRENT CAN BE STILL HIGHER

 NEXT EXAMPLE : CASE 11
 RELAY HAS TO SENSE ONLY DOWNSTREAM FAULTS?

 DIRECTIONAL ELEMENT TO BE ADDED
67 TRANSFORMER
-j 2.7 -j 2.7 -j 2.7
-j 2.7
-j 2.7
-j 298.3 -j 2.7
-j 292.9 -j 8.1 (213A) 153
I F = -j 301 180
 CASE 11
 SYSTEM SIMILAR TO CASE 10 , EXCEPT TRANSFORMER
 CONVENTIONAL TWO WINDING STAR – DELTA

TRANSFORMER
 REACTANCE STAR – DELTA : 12.1%

( 36.3% IN CASE10 )
 NO SOURCE ON 11 kV SIDE,
SYSTEM F Yg D
Yg
220kV R
11kV
 CURRENT DISTRIBUTION, FOR FAULT AT 'F' SHOWN
IN NEXT SLIDE 154

 CASE 11
 CURRENT SENSED BY GROUND FAULT RELAY AT
LOCATION 'R'
3I0 = 22.8 PU = 22.8 x 26.25 = 599A

[ IN CASE 10, 3I0 = 213A ]
 MORE CHANCE FOR GROUND FAULT RELAY TO PICK UP
IN THIS CASE
TRANSFORMER
SYSTEM R P S
-j 7.6
-j 7.6
-j7.6
-j 7.6
-j 298.4 -j 7.6 -j 7.6

-j 283.2 -j 22.8 155
I F = -j 306 182
 CASE 12
 VERY SIMILAR TO CASE 11 ,

EXCEPT SYSTEM  GENERATOR
GENERATOR F Yg D
Yg
11kV R
66kV
 CONVENTIONAL TWO WINDING STAR – DELTA

TRANSFORMER
 GENERATOR : 18.75 MVA, X'd = 20%, Xo = 10%
 TRANSFORMER : 20 MVA, 8%
 NO SOURCE ON 66 kV SIDE 156

 CASE 12
 BOTH GENERATOR AND TRANSFORMER SOLIDLY GROUNDED
 CURRENT THROUGH GENERATOR NEUTRAL
= 5.5 PU = 5.5 x 525  2890 AMPS
 CURRENT THROUGH TRANSFORMER NEUTRAL

= 7.2 PU = 7.2 x 525  3780 AMPS
TRANSFORMER
GENERATOR R P S
-j 2.4
-j 2.4
-j 2.4
-j 2.4
-j 10.3 -j 2.4 -j 2.4
-j 5.5 -j 7.2
157
1 PU CURRENT = 525 AMPS 186
I F = -j 12.7
 CASE 12
 BOTH GENERATOR AND TRANSFORMER RESISTANCE

GROUNDED [(11000/3) / 16 = 400 AMPS ]
 CURRENT THROUGH GENERATOR NEUTRAL
= 0.75 PU  400 AMPS
 CURRENT THROUGH TRANSFORMER NEUTRAL
= 0.75 PU  400 AMPS

TRANSFORMER
GENERATOR R P S
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
16  16 
1.25 0.25 0.25
0.75 0.75
I F = 1.5 1 PU CURRENT = 525 AMPS
158
 CASE 12
 CURRENT SENSED BY GROUND FAULT RELAY AT LOCATION 'R'
 GROUND FAULT RELAY CONNECTED TO RESIDUAL CIRCUIT
OR ON THE NEUTRAL OF TRANSFORMER
 RELAY LOOKS FOR FAULTS AHEAD OF ITS LOCATION !!
 STAR (GROUNDED) – DELTA : PECULIAR CONFIGURATION FOR

GROUND FAULT CURRENT FLOW
TRANSFORMER
GENERATOR R P S
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
16  16 
1.25 0.25 0.25
0.75 0.75 159
I F = 1.5 188
 CASE 13
 TRANSFORMER NEUTRAL SOLIDLY GROUNDED
 FOR GROUND FAULT  NEUTRAL CARRIES LARGE GROUND

FAULT CURRENT ?
 NOT ALWAYS!
 FIG 13_10
 AUTO_TRANSFORMER : NEUTRAL SOLIDLY GROUNDED
 FAULT ON 220 KV SIDE
 CURRENT THROUGH TRANSFORMER NEUTRAL  MINIMUM
 STANDBY EARTH FAULT RELAYS (51SN) ON NEUTRAL MAY
NOT PICK UP EVEN THOUGH NEUTRAL SOLIDLY GROUNDED!

160
 CASE 14
 CAN GROUND CURRENT (ZERO SEQUENCE) FLOW WITOUT
GROUND FAULT ?
 OF COURSE YES!
161
 CASE 14
 EXAMPLE
 NORMAL LOAD CURRENT ON 33 KV SIDE : 500A
TRANSFORMER
SOURCE 33 KV 11 KV
500  0
500  -120  LOAD
500 120
O O
162
 CASE 14
 R PHASE OPEN ( e.g. CONDUCTOR SNAPS )
 GROUND CURRENT (ZERO SEQ CURRENT) : 650A
 APPEARS AS IF R PHASE CURRENT NOW TRIES TO FLOW

THROUGH GROUND !
TRANSFORMER
SOURCE 33 kV 11 kV
513 -155  LOAD
633  93 
650  -40  650 -40  163
192
 CASE 14
 IF CT RATIO  500/1 AND (PS)PLUG SETTING  0.5
650
 PSM (PLUG SETTING MULTIPLIER) = ---------- = 2.6 > 2
500 x 0.5
 EARTH FAULT RELAYS (51N) WILL PICK UP
TRANSFORMER
SOURCE 33 kV 11 kV
513 -155  LOAD
633  93 
650  -40  650 -40  164
193
 CASE 14
 POLE DISCREPENCY DEDUCTION
 CONCEPT SAME
 TWO POLES CLOSED AND ONE POLE OPEN
 EARTH FAULT RELAY (51N) USED AS BACK UP

TO DETECT THIS SITUATION
165

 PLANT EMERGENCY SYSTEM : NORMALLY FED BY
DC SYSTEM
 DC SYSTEM : BATTERY, CHARGER, DC SWITCHGEAR
 BATTERIES :  110 V,  55 V,  24 V
 CENTRE POINT GROUNDED THROUGH HIGH RESISTANCE
CZA (+VE) 110
VDC
R
(-VE) 110
166

 POLE (+VE OR –VE) TO GROUND FAULTS DO NOT CAUSE
DISRUPTION. THIS CURRENT (VERY SMALL) DETECTED
BY CZA (CENTRE ZERO AMMETER).
 POLE TO POLE FAULTS RESULT IN

SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT : VERY RARE
CZA (+VE) 110
VDC
R
(-VE) 110
167
15.0 REFERENCES
 ANSI / IEEE STD 142 : IEEE RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
FOR GROUNDING OF INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL
POWER SYSTEMS [ GREEN BOOK ]
 ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION REFERENCE

BOOK : WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC CORPORATION
 J & P TRANSFORMER BOOK
 PROTECTIVE RELAYING : J LEWIS BLACKBURN,
PUBLISHER : MARCEL DEKKER INC
 ELECTRICAL EARTHING AND ACCIDENT PREVENTION :
EDITED BY M. G. SAY 168

• UNGROUNDED SYSTEM
• BALANCED STEADY STATE OPERATION

B
N IB
Y
IY
R
IR X X X
C C C
FIG_2_1_A
169
PHASOR DIAGRAM
B
V = VY = VB = 1.0
R
IR VRY = VYB = V BR =  3
G,N
R
IY
IB IR + IY + IB = 0
VNG = V0 = 0
Y
FIG_2_1_B
170
 SINGLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT
IRB B
IRB
IRY Y
IRY
R
IRY + IRB IF XC XC
IRY
FIG_2_2_A
IRB
171
PHASOR DIAGRAM
B I F = ( I RY + I RB )
= - ( I YR + I BR )
VBR = VBG = 3
VYR = VYG = 3
G I BR  = I YR = I =  3 / X
N C
R
I YR + I BR =  3 I = 3 / X
C
I BR I YR
I F = I RY + I RB
I YR + I BR V D = V RG + V YG + V BG = 3.0
Y
VGN = V0 = 1.0 FIG_2_2_B
172
 NEUTRAL AND ZERO SEQUENCE VOLTAGE
Y
B
V RG V YG V BG
R R R
N
VNG
FIG_2_3_A
173
• BALANCED STEADY STATE CONDITIONS
B VR = VY = VB = 1.0
VRY = V YB = V BR =  3
VR  VRG
G VY  VYG
N R
VB  VBG
V D = V + V + V = 3V = 0
R Y B 0
V= V = V D /3 =0
NG 0
Y
FIG_2_4_A
174
SOLIDLY GROUNDED
IF = 8543 AMPS
B VR = 0, FAULTED PHASE
VY = 0.992
VB = 0.996
VRY = VY = 0.992
VYB = 3
G
N VBR = VB = 0.996
R
VD = 0.977
V NG = V0 = V D / 3 = 0.326
FIG_2_4_B
Y 175
TRANSIENT OVER VOLTAGE
+5
No restrike
+1
Current interruption
Source
voltage -3 FIG_2_5
176
216
 OPEN DELTA PT CONNECTION
T1
6600/3
--------
110 /  3
S1
T2
110
--------
110 / 3
S2
VD = 3VO = VR + VY + VB FIG_2_6_A
R 177
VD = (VR + VY + VB) = 3VO = 3 VL-L = 3 * 6600 = 11,430 Volts
S1 S2
 VOLTAGE ACROSS RELAY = ---- ---- (VR + VY + VB)
T1 T2
(110 / 3) (110/3)

VD = --------------- ----------- 11430 = 63.5 Volts
(6600/ 3) 110
FIG_2_6_B
178
 IF AUXILIARY TRANSFORMER RATIO IS 110 / (110 / 3),

VD = 110 Volts
RELAY RATED FOR 63.5V AND WIRED FOR ALARM

CAN NOT BE USED IN THIS CASE
 PREFERRED RATIO FOR AUX. TRANSFORMER : 110 / (110 / 3)
FIG_2_6_C
179
 NEUTRAL INVERSION AND FERRO_RESONANCE
Y
B
VRG VYG VBG XC XC XC

== == ==
XEX
N
VNG
FIG_2_7_A
180
 VRG , VYG , VBG : PHASE TO GROUND IMPRESSED VOLTAGES
 VNG : NEUTRAL TO GROUND VOLTAGE
 XC : CHARGING CAPACITANCE
 XEX : TRANSFORMER EXCITING (MAGNETISING) REACTANCE
VRG  VNG VRG  VNG VYG  VNG VBG  VNG

--------------  -----------------  --------------  -------------- = 0
j XEX  j XC  j XC  j XC
WITH VRG  VYG  VBG = 0,

VRG
VNG = -------------------
FIG_2_7_B
1  (3 XEX / XC )
181

2
VN > 1.0
XE/XC = 1/3
1
XE/XC ( IC/IEX ) x 0.001

0
10 100 1000 10000
VN < 0.0
-1
FIG_2_8
-2 182
222
• NEUTRAL INVERSION
B
1.0 R
G,N N'
Y FIG_2_9_A
183
 SIMILAR CONCEPT : VN > VA OR VN < VB
• LET VA = 1.0 AND VB = 0 VA

-j X C
1
 VN = -----------------
VN
– (XC/ XL)
j XL
 IF (XC / XL) < 1 ,  VN > 1 ( i.e. VN > VA )
VB
[ e.g. XC/ XL = 0.2  VN = 1.25 ]
 IF (XC/ XL) > 1 ,  VN < 0 ( i.e. VN < VB )
[ e.g. XC/ XL = 5  VN = - 0.25 ]

FIG_2_9_B
184
• VN DOES NOT LIE BETWEEN VA AND VB
• GROUNDING LOCATIONS
FIG 3_1_A
185
FIG 3_1_B
186
GROUNDING EQUIPMENT FIG 3_1_C

187
• 3 FAULT AND 1 TO GROUND FAULT

X’d = 0.3 X t = 0.08 F
Yg G
D  X 1G Z +VE
X1G = X2G = 0.3 X1T = X2T = 0.08 X T
1
X0G = 0.1 X0T = 0.08
I1
• 3  FAULT
1 1
I 3  = ------- = ------- = 2.6316 PU X G
2
Z +VE 0.38 Z - VE
3 X2T
I 1 = 3 I 0 = ------------------------- I2
Z +VE + Z -VE + Z 0
3 X0G
= ------- = 3.5714 PU Z0
0.84 X0T
3.5714
K F = ----------- > 1 I FIG 3_2
0
2.6316
188
• SINGLE PHASE FAULT CURRENT > THREE PHASE FAULT CURRENT
VOLTAGE VARIATION
2
1.75
1.5
VOLTAGE PU
0.8 * V(L_L)
1.25
MAX_PHASE_VOLTAGE
1
0.75
0.5
V_NEUTRAL
0.25
FIG_3_3
RO / X1
0
0.01 0.1 1 189
10
229
 GROUND RELAY : RESIDUAL CONNECTION
G
FIG_4_1_A
[ {20% to 80%} ; {10% to 40%} ]
190
G {1% to 10%}
FIG_4_1_B
191
PHASE ANGLE OF HARMONIC COMPONENTS
HARMONIC A B C PHASE ROTATION
FUNDAMENTAL 0 120 240 (+)VE
THIRD 0 3 x 120 3 x 240 ZERO

( 0 ) ( 0 )
FIFTH 0 5 x 120 5 x 240 ()VE
( 240 ) ( 120 )
SEVENTH 0 7 x 120 7 x 240 (+)VE
( 120 ) ( 240 )
NINTH 0 9 x 120 9 x 240 ZERO
( 0 ) ( 0 )
ELEVENTH 0 11 x 120 11 x 240 ()VE
( 240 ) ( 120 )
THIRTEENTH 0 13 x 120 13 x 240 (+)VE
( 120 ) ( 240 )
FIFTEENTH 0 15 x 120 15 x 240 ZERO
( 0 ) ( 0 ) FIG_4_2_A
SEVENTEENTH 0 17 x 120 17 x 240 ()VE
192
(240 ) ( 120 )
1 0 1 0
1  120 1 0
1 240 1 0
O 3 0
[ (+VE), (-VE) ] SEQUENCE ZERO SEQUENCE
SYMMETRICAL HALF CYCLE : NO EVEN HARMONICS
+VE HALF
CYCLE
FIG_4_2_B
-VE HALF
CYCLE 193
• RESISTANCE GROUNDED SYSTEM
• SINGLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT
IRB B
IRB
IRY Y
R IRY
IRY + IRB
R
IN IF XC XC
IN IRY
IN
FIG_5_1_A
IRB 194
PHASOR DIAGRAM
B
IRY + IRB
IF
N IN
R,G
IBR IYR
IYR + IBR FIG_5_1_B

Y
195
VOLTAGE AT CURRENT ZERO
VOL
I UG
IF
0
PHI = 45
PHI = 90 0
FIG_5_2
196
236
• GROUND FAULT NEUTRALISER (PETERSON COIL)
IRB B
IRB
IRY Y
GFN IRY
XL IRY + IRB
R
IN F XC XC
IN IRY
FIG_6_1_A
IRB
197
B
IRY + IRB VNG = 1.0
VBR = VBG =  3
VYR = VYG =  3
N G
R
IBR = IYR= I =  3 / XC
IR
B IYR
IYR + IBR =  3 I = 3 / XC
IN = 1 / XL
Y IYR + IBR
( IN ) IN = - (IRY + IRB)
FIG_6_1_B
198
• ZIG – ZAG GROUNDING TRANSFORMER

R Y B
E E
I0 IR = 1 0 I0 IY = 1 -120 I0 IB =1 120
E/3 P
E/ 3
FIG_7_1_A
3I0 NGR 199
• VOLTAGE TRIANGLE FOR ZIG-ZAG CONNECTION
E/3
E/3
E/3
B Y
E FIG_7_1_B
200
• TYPICAL CURRENT DISTRIBUTION (GROUNDING TRANSFORMER)

 3I 0 (141) 415V / 6600V
(5.1)
I0
 3I 0 (141) 0
I0(5.1)
2I0 (10.2)
IF =3I 0
I0 (5.1) I0 (15.3)
(5.1)
I0
(5.1)
250 
FIG_7_2
3I0
(15.3) 201
GROUNDING TRANSFORMER SIZING : TYPICAL CALCULATIONS
GENERATOR E = 1.0
4 MVA
X'd : 0.25
ZPOS
415 V
TRANSFORMER
5.5 MVA
X : 0.08 D ZNEG
11 KV
FAULT
Z ZER
ZIG ZAG GROUNDING
TRANSFORMER FIG 7_3_A
NGR
I0
IF = 3I 0 202
 BASE MVA : 10  IB = BASE CURRENT = 10 / (3 x 11) = 0.5249 KA
 GENERATOR
 X(+VE) = X1 = X'd = 0.25 x (10 / 4) = 0.625 PU
 X(-VE) = X2 = X1 = 0.625 PU
 TRANSFORMER
 X(+VE) = X1 = 0.08 x (10 / 5.5) = 0.1455 PU
 X(-VE) = X2 = X1 = 0.1455 PU
 GROUNDING TRANSFORMER ( ZIG ZAG )
X(+VE) = X(-VE) = 
FIG 7_3_B
Z0 = R0 + j X0 203
ZERO SEQUENCE
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
I0 t
I0 I0 I0 V0 Z 0= z 0 + 3R
I0
I0
R I0
FIG 7_4_A
I F = 3I 0
204
ZERO SEQUENCE
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
I0
I0 I0 I0 I0 t
V0 Z 0= z 0 + R/3
3V 0 R
I0
I0
FIG 7_4_B
I F = 3I 0
205
UNINTENTIONAL GROUNDING TRANSFORMER

I0
0
I0 2I 0
I0
I0
I0 I0 I0 3I0
I F = 3I 0
FEEDER #1
I0 I0
FIG_8_1
I0
206
FEEDER #2
COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT GROUNDING METHODS

HIGH LOW SOLIDLY
UNGROUNDED RESISTANCE RESISTANCE GROUNDED
GROUNDED GROUNDED
I1-  / I3-  < 0.5% < 1% 5% to 20% > 60%
TRANSIENT OVERVOLTAGE 3 to 6 PU NOT MORE THAN 1.5 to 2.5 PU
ARRESTOR RATING 100% 80%
PT VOLTAGE FACTOR 190% FOR 3 SEC 150% FOR

3 SEC
FAULT LOCATION NO PERHAPS YES
IMMEDIATE DISCONNECTION
AFTER GROUND FAULT NO OPTIONAL YES
EXPECTED REPAIR NEW WINDING INSULATION

(WINDING) AFTER GROUND
FAULT
EXPECTED REPAIR PERHAPS CORE
NIL CORE
(CORE) AFTER GROUND STACKING
FAULT STACKING Table_9_1
MULTIPLE FAULTS OFTEN SELDOM 207
 GROUNDING GENERATOR NEUTRAL

CASE 1
EHV BUS
T1 T2
G1 G2
N1 N2
NGR
FIG_10_1_A
208
CASE 2
EHV BUS
GT1 GT2
G1 G2
N1 N2
NGR NGR
FIG_10_1_B
209
• GROUNDING GENERATOR NEUTRAL

• CASE 3
TERMINAL BUS
G1 G2
N1 N2 NGR
ZIG ZAG
GROUNDING
TRANSFORMER FIG_10_2_A
210
• CASE 4
G1 G2
N1 N2
ISOLATING DEVICE
FIG_10_2_B
211
• TYPICAL POWER PLANT DISTRIBUTION

S
220 KV FL : 10,000 MVA
R = 1 K GT
250 MVA
235 MVA G 10%
X'd 30%
16 KV
UAT
10 MVA
10%
6.6 KV
6.6 KV : THREE PHASE FAULT LEVEL : 8450 A

FIG_11_1
SINGLE PHASE FAULT LEVEL
FOR SOLID GROUNDING : 8543 A 212
• LOW RESISTANCE GROUNDED
B
IF = 3480 AMPS
VR = 0, FAULTED PHASE
VY = 1.419
VB = 1.822
VRY = VY = 1.419
N VYB = 3
G VBR = VB = 1.822
R
VD = 2.769
VGN = V0 = 0.923
FIG_11_2_A
Y
213
• HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDED
B
IF = 10 AMPS
VR = 0, FAULTED PHASE
VY = 3
VB = 3
N G VRY = VY = 3
R VYB = 3
VBR = VB = 3
VD = 3.0
VGN = V0 = 1.0
Y FIG_11_2_B
214
VOLTAGE - CURRENT CURVES

3
V_DELTA
2.5
VOLTAGE IN PU
2
VL_MIN
1.5 70%
VL_RAT
0.5
FIG_11_3
0
10 100 1000 10000215
CURRENT IN AMPS 255
FAIRY TALES
FAULT CURRENT RETURNS TO ANY TRANSFORMER NEUTRAL ?
216
FIG 13_1_A
• AMPERE TURNS BALANCE
Ia TA IA
IN TC
Ta
Ib Tb
Tc I C
TB
IB
Ic
IF
217
FIG 13_1_B
FAIRY TALES
• CASE 1 :
SOURCE TRANSFORMER
FIG 13_2_A
218
• CASE 2 :
SOURCE TRANSFORMER
FIG 13_2_B
219
• CASE 3 :
SOURCE TRANSFORMER
0 0
0 0
Ia IA
IF
FIG 13_2_C
220
CASE 4 :
SOURCE TRANSFORMER
0 0
0 0
Ia R IA
60 A 100 A IF
FIG 13_3_A
221
CASE 5 :
SOURCE TRANSFORMER
0 0
0 0
Ia R IA
100 A
37 A 62 A IF
FIG 13_3_B
222
CASE 6
Ia 0 0
IN 0
0
IA
IF
FIG 13_4_A
223
• VOLTAGE VECTORS
DELTA STAR
R
B
VR = 1.0 VR = 0
VY = 0.51 N G VY = 0.88
VB = 0.51 R VB = 0.88
VNG = 0 VNG = 0.11

G
N
B Y Y
FIG 13_4_B
224
• CASE 7
TRANSFORMER
SOURCE P T S
2 2 1 1
0
0 3 0
1 1 3
1 1
1
IF = 3
FIG 13_5_A
225
• CASE 8
TRANSFORMER
SOURCE P T S
4 4 1 1
0
2 5 0
1 1 5
1 1
2
1
IF = 5
FIG 13_5_B
226
• SYSTEM FOR SIMULATION
SYSTEM
220 KV
R R O/H LINE
G1 G2
SOURCE T
11 KV R 400A
FIG 13_6_A
227
G1 : 30.625 MVA, X'd = 13.6%
G2 : 13.125 MVA, X'd = 25%
NGR R1 = R2 = R3 = 15.88  [ 11000 / 3 x 15.88 = 400 A ]
TRANSFORMER : 220 / 11 / 3.3 KV [ H – L – T ]
REACTANCE ON 30 MVA BASE
H – L : 12.1 %
L – T : 21.2 %
FIG 13_6_B
H – T : 36.3 %
228
220 KV O/H LINE : IMPEDANCE ON 10 MVA BASE
Z (+VE) = 0.00008 + j 0.00045
Z(zero) = 0.00033 + j 0.00115
SYSTEM FAULT LEVEL : F(3) = F(1) = 2983 MVA
FIG 13_6_C
229
• CASE 9
TRANSFORMER  STAR GROUNDED [P]  D [T]  STAR GROUNDED [S]
TRANSFORMER
-j 2.76
-j 2.76
SOURCE
SYSTEM
11 KV 220 KV
-j 2.76 0.25 - j1.54
- 0.6 + j 8.6
0.25 - j1.54
- 0.25 + j 4.3
0.6 - j11.36 - j 298.3
- 0.25 + j 4.3
0.1 0.1 I = 0.6 – j 309.66

F
ALL CURRENTS IN PU 0.1 – j 8.28 0.5 – j 301.38
1 PU CURRENT ON 11 KV SIDE = 525 A
230
1 PU CURRENT ON 220 KV SIDE = 26.25 A FIG 13_7
• CASE 10
TRANSFORMER
-j 2.7 -j 2.7 -j 2.7
-j 2.7
-j 2.7
-j 298.3 -j 2.7
-j 292.9 -j 8.1
IF = -j 301
FIG 13_8_A
231
CASE11
TRANSFORMER
SYSTEM R P S
-j 7.6
-j 7.6
-j7.6
-j 7.6
-j 298.4 -j 7.6 -j 7.6

-j 283.2 -j 22.8
I F = -j 306
FIG 13_8_B
232
• CASE 12
SOLIDLY GROUNDED
TRANSFORMER
GENERATOR R P S
-j 2.4
-j 2.4
-j 2.4
-j 2.4
-j 10.3 -j 2.4 -j 2.4

-j 5.5 -j 7.2
IF = -j 12.7
FIG 13_9_A
1 PU CURRENT = 525 AMPS 233
RESISTANCE GROUNDED : 11000 / (3 * 16) = 400 AMPS

TRANSFORMER
GENERATOR R P S
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
16 16 
1.25 0.25 0.25

0.75 0.75
I F = 1.5
1 PU CURRENT = 525 AMPS

FIG 13_9_B
234
• CASE 13
AUTOTRANSFORMER  NEUTRAL GROUNDED  D [TERTIARY ]
XHM = 9.5%; XML = 47.4%; XHL = 31%  ON 37.5 MVA BASE
SOURCE LOAD
132 KV 220 KV
588 408
655
180 11 KV
90 90
0
90
90 0
FIG 13_10
235
408 0 408
TRANSFORMER
SOURCE 33 KV 11 KV
500  0
500  -120 LOAD


500 120
O O
FIG 13_11_A
236
TRANSFORMER
SOURCE 33KV 11 KV
LOAD
513 -155 
650  -40  633  93  650 -40 
FIG 13_11_B
237
SOLIDLY GROUNDED NEUTRAL
ACCIDENTAL CONTACT
SITCHGEAR
N V TOUCH
GRID
RE =
1 
E
238
FIG_4_3
• BALANCED STEADY STATE CONDITIONS
B VR = VY = VB = 1.0
VRY = V YB = V BR =  3
VR  VRG
G VY  VYG
N R
VB  VBG
V D = V + V + V = 3V = 0
R Y B 0
V NG = V0 = VD / 3 = 0
Y
FIG_2_4_A
239
SOLIDLY GROUNDED
IF = 8543 AMPS
B VR = 0, FAULTED PHASE
VY = 0.992
VB = 0.996
VRY = VY = 0.992
VYB = 3
G
N VBR = VB = 0.996
R
VD = 0.977
V NG = V0 = V D / 3 = 0.326
FIG_2_4_B
Y 240

2
VN > 1.0
XE/XC = 1/3
1
XE/XC ( IC/IEX ) x 0.001

0
10 100 1000 10000
VN < 0.0
-1
FIG_2_7_A
FIG_2_8
-2 241
282
ZERO SEQUENCE
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
I0 t
I0 I0 I0 V0 Z 0= z 0 + 3R
I0
I0
R I0
FIG 7_4_A
I F = 3I 0
242
ZERO SEQUENCE
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
I0 t
I0 I0 I0 V0 Z 0= z 0 + 3R
I0
I0
R I0
FIG 7_4_A
I F = 3I 0
243
 GROUNDING GENERATOR NEUTRAL

CASE 1
EHV BUS
T1 T2
G1 G2
N1 N2
NGR
FIG_10_1_A
244
• CASE 4
G1 G2
N1 N2
ISOLATING DEVICE
FIG_10_2_B
245
G1 G2
N1 N2
ISOLATING DEVICE
FIG_10_2_B
246
+5
No restrike
+1
Source
voltage -3 FIG_2_5
247
288
+5
No restrike
+1
Source
voltage -3 FIG_2_5
248
289
• GROUND FAULT NEUTRALISER (PETERSON COIL)
IRB B
IRB
IRY Y
GFN IRY
XL IRY + IRB
R
IN F XC XC
IN IRY
FIG_6_1_A
IRB
249
UNINTENTIONAL GROUNDING TRANSFORMER

I0
0
I0 2I 0
I0
I0
I0 I0 I0 3I0
I F = 3I 0
FEEDER #1
I0 I0
FIG_8_1
I0
250
FEEDER #2
 ZERO_SEQUENCE VOLTGAE DISTORTS PHASE VOLTAGE

 ZERO_SEQUENCE VOLTGAE  NO DISTORTION OF LINE TO
LINE VOLTAGE
 NEUTRAL SHIFTED
R
VR
VBR VRY
V0 N,G
N'
VY
VB
FIG_SE_CO_8
B VYB Y 251
ZERO SEQUENCE
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
I0 t
I0 I0 I0 V0 Z 0= z 0 + 3R
I0
I0
R I0
FIG 7_4_A
I F = 3I 0
252
ZERO SEQUENCE
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
I0
I0 I0 I0 I0 t
V0 Z 0= z 0 + R/3
3V 0 R
I0
I0
FIG 7_4_B
I F = 3I 0
253
Ia 0 0
IN 0
0
IA
IF
FIG 13_4_A
254

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POWER ENGINEERING

Wisdom is not Virtue but Necessity 1

Power Engineering Training Course

Protection and Control Equipment Dr. K. Rajamani

Grounding of Electrical System Mr. H. C. Mehta

1st Day : Protection & Control Equipment

09.00 - 09.30 Hrs. Registration

1.1 UNGROUNDED AND GROUNDED SYSTEM

1.2 GROUNDING AND EARTHING

2.0 UNGROUNDED SYSTEM

2.1 NEUTRAL & GROUND – DIFFERENCE

2.2 ADVANTAGES OF UNGROUNDED SYSTEM

2.3 DISADVANTAGES OF UNGROUNDED SYSTEM

2.0 UNGROUNDED SYSTEM

2.4 TRANSIENT OVER VOLTAGES IN

2.5 GROUND FAULT DETECTION IN

2.6 NEUTRAL INVERSION AND FERRO_RESONANCE

2.7 MITIGATING TECHNIQUES FOR

2.8 UNGROUNDED SYSTEM APPLICATION 5

3.0 REASONS FOR GROUNDING

3.2 GROUNDING METHODS

3.3 MEASURE OF GROUNDING EFFECTIVENESS

3.4 EFFECTIVELY GROUNDED SYSTEM

4.0 SOLID GROUNDING

5.0 RESISTANCE GROUNDING

5.2 HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDING

5.3 LOW RESISTANCE GROUNDING

6.0 RESONANT GROUNDING

7.0 GROUNDING THE BUS

7.2 STAR – DELTA TRANSFORMER

8.0 UNINTENTIONAL GROUNDING

9.0 SUMMARY OF COMPARISON : DIFFERENT

10.0 GENERATOR NEUTRAL GROUNDING PRACTICES

11.0 NEUTRAL GROUNDING – PHASE AND LINE

12.0 SEQUENCE VOLTAGES VS FAULT LOCATION

13.0 NEUTRAL GROUNDING - FAIRY TALES

14.0 GROUNDING – DC SYSTEM

1.1 UNGROUNDED AND GROUNDED SYSTEM

 UPTO 1940 : MOST OF THE SYSTEMS

 NEUTRALS KEPT FREE ( FLOATING )

 GROUND CONNECTION NOT USEFUL FOR TRANSFER

OF THREE PHASE POWER IN THREE WIRE SYSTEM

1.1 UNGROUNDED AND GROUNDED SYSTEM

 LINE TO GROUND FAULT: MAJORITY (70%)

 NO RETURN PATH : FAULT CURRENT VERY LOW

 SERVICE NOT INTERRUPTED

 AT LEISURE, LOCATE FAULT AND RECTIFY

 RELAYING NOT ADVANCED

1.1 UNGROUNDED AND GROUNDED SYSTEM

 SOON PROBLEMS BECAME CRITICAL

 TRANSIENT OVER VOLTAGES

 GROUNDING NEUTRAL – SOLUTION ?

1.1 UNGROUNDED AND GROUNDED SYSTEM

 UNGROUNDED [ OVER VOLTAGE PROBLEM ]

GROUNDED [ OVER CURRENT PROBLEM ]

 EVEN TODAY GROUNDED VS UNGROUNDED

'THE' PREFERRED ALTERNATIVE : DOES NOT EXIST

1.2 GROUNDING AND EARTHING

 CONNECTION OF POWER SYSTEM NEUTRAL TO

 CONNECTION OF CURRENT CARRYING PART TO

 LIMIT OVER VOLTAGE OF LIVE CONDUCTOR

 ANOTHER TERM  EQUIPMENT GROUNDING

 CONNECTION OF NON CURRENT CARRYING PARTS