UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY TAXILA

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Notes: 01

Course Title: THERMODYNAMICS—II

Course Code: 221

Tutor: Khalid Masood Khan

1
Most of the notes’ contents are adapted from the following classic text on
Engineering Thermodynamics:
TD Eastop and A McConkey: Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering Technologists,
© 1986 Longman Group Ltd, New York.

1
It relates to notes taught last time. The books and the course contents derived therefrom may change as class-notes
evolve over time.
 Nozzle__ course outline

Old
Nozzle shape, critical pressure ratio, maximum mass flow, nozzle efficiency, shock
waves, flow of a vapor through a nozzle, approximation for the steam nozzle,
frictional losses, supersaturation, and flow measurement.

Previous (HEC-2008)
Steam Nozzles, flow through steam nozzle and its efficiencies. Steam engine and steam
turbine, their classification and working principles, efficiency and heat balance sheet.
Introduction to air/gas nozzles.

Previous (HEC-2011/12)
Nozzles: Introduction to nozzles, flow through steam nozzle and its efficiencies, their
classification working principles.

Current (MED/ UET Taxila-2016)

Nozzles: Introduction to nozzles, flow through steam nozzle and its efficiencies, their
classification working principles.
Previous (HEC-2011/12)

Title of the Course: THERMODYNAMICS-II

Course code: ME-221/ Credit Hours: (3, 1)

Specific Objectives:
To introduce turbo-machinery (Turbines, compressors and engines etc.)
To study the behavior of ideal and real gas mixtures.
Understanding of different thermodynamic systems and to deal with real-world engineering problems in order to improve the performance of
such systems.

Course Outline:
Mixture with chemical reaction: Combustion reaction equations, stoichiometric chemical reaction, air-fuel ratio, rich and lean mixtures,
enthalpy of formation.
Compressors: classification and working principles, single stage and multistage compressors, inter-cooling, efficiencies and P-V diagrams of
reciprocating compressors, velocity diagrams of centrifugal compressors, performance characteristics and working regimes.
Boilers: generation of steam through boilers, classification and configurations of boilers and their applications, boiler efficiencies and heat
balance sheet.
Nozzles: Introduction to nozzles, flow through steam nozzle and its efficiencies, their classification working principles.
Turbines: Steam turbine, their classification and working principles.

Introduction to internal combustion engines: Two and four-stroke engines, SI and CI engines, carburetion and fuel injection system.

Lab Outline:
Experiments related to the course outline of Thermodynamics-I & II will be covered in the Lab class.

Recommended Books:
1. Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics, By M. J. Moran and H. O. Shapiro, John Wiley & Sons
2. Fundamentals of Thermodynamics, By Sonntang,Borgnakke,Van Wylen John Wiley & Sons
3. Thermodynamics, An Engineering Approach, By Yunus Cengel, Michael A. Boles McGraw-Hill
4. Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering Technologists, By T. D. Eastop and A. McConkey
5. Basic Engineering Thermodynamic, By Rayner Joel Prentice Hall
Current (MED/ UET Taxila-2016)

Thermodynamics-II
Course code: ME-221/ Credit Hours: 2, 1

Specific Objectives:
• To introduce turbomachinery (turbines, compressors, and engines, etc.)
• To study the behavior of ideal and real gas mixtures
• To understand different thermodynamic systems and to deal with real-world engineering problems in order to improve system
performance.

Course Outline

Mixture with Chemical Reaction5

Combustion reaction equations, stoichiometric chemical reaction, air-fuel ratio, rich and lean mixtures, enthalpy of formation.
Compressors3
Classification and working principles, single-stage and multistage compressors, intercooling, efficiencies, and P-V diagrams of reciprocating
compressors, velocity diagrams of reciprocating compressors, performance characteristics and working regimes.
Boilers6
Generation of steam through boilers, classification and configuration of boilers and their applications, boiler efficiencies and heat balance sheet.
Nozzles1
Introduction to nozzles, flow through steam nozzle and its efficiencies, their classification and working principles.
Turbines2
Steam turbines, their classification and working principles.
Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines4
Two- and four-stroke engines, spark-ignition and compression-ignition engines, carburation and fuel-injection system.

Lab Work Outline

Experiments related to the course outline of Thermodynamics-I and Thermodynamics-II will be covered in the Lab class.

Recommended Books
1. Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics, MJ Moran and HO Shapiro, John Wiley & Sons
2. Fundamentals of Thermodynamics, Sonntag, Borgnakke, and Van Wylen, John Wiley & Sons.
3. Thermodynamics: An engineering Approach, Yunus Cengel, Michael A Boles, McGraw-Hill
4. Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering Technologists, TD Eastop and A McConkey
5. Basic Engineering Thermodynamics, Rayner Joel, Prentice Hall.
Recommended Books (class-tutor):
1. Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering Technologists, SI Units, 4th Edition, By T. D.
Eastop and A. McConkey, © Longman Group Limited 1986.

2. Basic Engineering Thermodynamics, 5th Edition, By Rayner Joel, © Addison

Wesley Longman Limited 1996.

3. Engineering Thermodynamics, 3rd Edition, SI Units, By D. B. Spalding and E. H.

Cole, © 1973.

4. Thermal Physics, 2nd Edition, By C. Kittel and H. Kroemer, © W. H. Freeman and

Company, 1980.

5. Thermodynamics, 3rd Edition, SI version, By William Z. Black and James G.

Hartley, © HarperCollins College Publishers, 1996.

6. Modern Compressible Flow with Historical Perspective, 2nd Edition, By John D.

Anderson, Jr., © McGraw-Hill, 1990.
 Nozzles

• Nozzle is a duct of smoothly varying cross-sectional area in

which a steadily flowing fluid can be made to accelerate by a
pressure drop along the duct.

• Nozzle is therefore a specially designed duct of which the

whole purpose is to cause the fluid to leave with a higher
velocity than that with which it enters.

• Engineering applications of nozzle, among many, include its use

in steam and gas turbines, jet engines, rocket motors, and flow
measurement.
 Diffuser

• When fluid is decelerated in a duct, causing a rise in pressure along

the stream, then the duct is called a diffuser.

• Centrifugal compressor and the ramjet, among others, employ a

diffuser. Hence, both nozzle and diffuser are area-changing devices.

• Both the nozzle and the diffuser operate at steady state. They
neither produce nor consume any work and, most time, involve
very small changes in potential energy.
 Flow Through a Nozzle

Assumptions:

• The flow is one-dimensional. This means that the fluid velocity,

and fluid properties, change only in the direction of flow. The
fluid velocity, therefore, is taken constant at a mean value across
the cross-section of the duct.

• The effects of friction are approximated by the use of suitable

efficiencies or coefficients to allow for departure from the ideal
frictionless case.
 Nozzle Shape

• Given that fluid enters a duct at section 1 with a low velocity

𝐶1 , and with fluid properties 𝑝1 (pressure) and ℎ1 (specific
enthalpy).

• Then, the requirement is

 Find shape of the duct that will cause the fluid to
accelerate to a high velocity as pressure falls along the
duct.
 Assumptions

• The duct is adiabatic, i.e., 𝑄 = 0

• The duct neither produces nor consumes work, i.e., 𝑊 = 0

• Absence of heat and work interactions, no appreciable potential
energy change, then reduces steady flow energy equation to

 C2 
 h    0
 2 

• Applying this equation to the flow in the duct between section 1

and any other section X-X where velocity is 𝐶, pressure is 𝑝 and
specific enthalpy is ℎ, then gives

Next slide
 2
C1 C2
h1  h
2 2

or,

C  2 ( h 1  h )  C12
2

or,

C  {2( h1  h )  C12 }             10.1

• If the area at section X-X is 𝐴, the specific volume is 𝜈, then the
continuity of mass equation gives

𝐶𝐴
𝑚ሶ =
𝜈

where 𝑚ሶ is the mass flow rate.

or,

area per unit mass flow rate,

𝐴 𝜈
= −−−− −(10.2)
𝑚ሶ 𝐶

Next slide
1

• Substituting from equation (10.1) for 𝐶 gives

𝐴 𝜈
= −−−− −(10.3)
𝑚ሶ 2 ℎ1 − ℎ + 𝐶12

• Equation (10.3) can be used to find the way in which the area of
the duct varies only if specific volume, and specific enthalpy are
known at any section, considering 𝐶1 is negligible.
• For the ideal frictionless case, since the fluid flow is reversible
and adiabatic, the process undergone between section 1 and
section X-X is isentropic.

• A process that is adiabatic and reversible, by definition, is

isentropic, i.e.,

𝑠1 entropy at section 1 = 𝑠 (entropy at any other section, say, X-X)

• Now, if specific entropy (𝑠) and pressure (𝑝) are known at any
section X-X, then it is possible to evaluate specific volume (𝜈)
and specific enthalpy (ℎ) at that section.
• For a vapor, this can be done using steam tables; for a perfect
gas, the procedure is simpler, since we have for an isentropic
process
𝛾 𝛾
𝑝1 𝜈1 = 𝑝2 𝜈2

• In either case, for given (fixed) inlet conditions, the variation in

area, 𝐴, specific volume, 𝜈, and velocity, 𝐶, can be plotted
against pressure along the duct.
• Fig-1 shows typical curves for area, velocity and specific volume. The
curve for area decreases initially, reaches a minimum, and then
increases again.

• This trend can be explained

by examining equation (10.2),

𝐴 𝜈
=
𝑚ሶ 𝐶
when 𝜈 increases less rapidly than 𝐶, the area decreases; conversely, when 𝜈
increases more rapidly than 𝐶, the area increases.

• A nozzle, the area of which varies as in Fig-1, is called convergent-

divergent nozzle.
• A cross-section of a typical convergent-divergent nozzle is shown in
Fig-2.

• The section of minimum area is called the throat of the nozzle. When
a nozzle operates with the maximum mass flow, it is said to be
choked. A correctly designed convergent-divergent nozzle is always
choked.
• The velocity at the throat of a nozzle operating at its designed pressure ratio is
the velocity of sound at the throat conditions. In what follows it will be
assumed that the nozzle always operates at its designed pressure ratio. For a
correctly designed nozzle, it is the ratio of pressure at the nozzle inlet to the
pressure at the nozzle exit (𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 Τ𝑝𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 ).

• The flow up to the throat is sub-sonic; the flow at the throat is sonic; and, the
flow after the throat is supersonic.

• It should be noted that a sonic or supersonic flow requires a diverging duct to

accelerate it.

• The specific volume of a liquid is constant over a wide pressure range, and
therefore nozzles for liquids are always convergent, even at very high exit
velocities (e.g. a fire-hose uses a convergent nozzle).
.
• Neglecting 𝐶1 in equation (10.1) gives

C  {2 (h1  h)}            10.4 

• Since enthalpy is usually expressed in 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔, then an additional

constant of 103 will appear within the root sign in equation (10.4) if 𝐶
is expressed in 𝑚/𝑠.

• Substituting 𝐶= 2(ℎ1 − ℎ) in equation (10.3) gives

𝐴 𝜈
= −−−− −(10.5)
𝑚ሶ 2 ℎ1 − ℎ
• Solution of equation (10.5) is possible for vapor taking into account
the assumption that the flow process is isentropic and that the
pressure at any section is chosen arbitrarily, i.e., it is known.

• Hence, a plot of pressure on abscissa versus all other parameters

(such as area, flow velocity, specific volume, etc.) on the ordinate
should enable the critical pressure ratio to be found graphically.

• Critical pressure ratio is the ratio of pressure at the section, where

flow velocity is sonic, to the pressure at the nozzle inlet, i.e., for a
perfect gas,
𝛾
𝑝𝑐 2 𝛾−1
Critical pressure ratio, = −−−− −(10.6)
𝑝1 𝛾+1
• Similarly, the ratio of the temperature at the section of the nozzle where
the velocity is sonic to the inlet temperature is called the critical
temperature ratio, i.e., for a perfect gas,

𝑇𝑐 2
= −−−− −(10.7)
𝑇1 𝛾 + 1

• Equations (10.6) and (10.7) apply to perfect gases only. However, a

sufficiently close approximation is obtained if it is assumed that the
expansion follows a law of the form 𝑝𝜈 𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 where 𝑘 is an
approximate isentropic index. 𝑘 = 1.135 for dry saturated steam; 𝑘 = 1.3
for superheated steam.

• Equation (10.7) cannot be used for a wet vapor since no simple

relationship between 𝑝 and 𝑇 is known for a wet vapor undergoing a
reversible adiabatic process.
• Velocity at the throat of a correctly designed convergent-divergent nozzle,
or velocity at the exit of a convergent nozzle when the pressure ratio
across the nozzle is the critical pressure ratio, is called critical velocity.

• For a perfect gas,

critical velocity, 𝐶𝑐 = 𝛾𝑅𝑇𝑐 −−−− −(10.8)

• Critical velocity is the velocity of sound, 𝑎, at the critical conditions.

Velocity of sound at any section, X-X, along the nozzle axis for a perfect gas
is

velocity of sound, a = 𝛾𝑝𝜈 = 𝛾𝑅𝑇 −−−− −(10.9)

• Equations (10.8) and (10.9) cannot be used for a vapor unless it is
assumed that vapor follows an approximate isentropic law of the form
𝑝𝜈 𝑘 = constant. Therefore, for a vapor,

critical velocity, 𝐶𝑐 = 𝑘𝑝𝜈 −−−− −(10.10)

• Similarly, for a vapor,

𝑘
𝑝𝑐 2 𝑘−1
critical pressure ratio, = −−−− −(10.11)
𝑝1 𝑘+1
 Nozzle Efficiency

• Due to friction between the fluid and the walls of the nozzle, and
to friction within the fluid itself, the expansion process is
irreversible, although still approximately adiabatic.

• In nozzle design it is usual to base all calculations on isentropic

flow and then to make an allowance for friction by using a
coefficient or an efficiency.
• Typical expansion for a vapor, between 𝑝1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝2 , through a nozzle
is shown on a 𝑇𝑠-diagram in Fig-3. The line 1 − 2 represents the
ideal isentropic expansion, and the line 1 − 2′ represents the actual
irreversible adiabatic expansion.
• Nozzle efficiency is defined by the ratio of the actual enthalpy drop to the
isentropic enthalpy drop between the same pressures 𝑝1 and 𝑝2 , i.e.,

ℎ1 − ℎ2′
nozzle efficiency, 𝜂𝑛𝑧 = −−−− − 10.12
ℎ1 − ℎ2

• Similarly, coefficient of discharge is defined as the ratio of actual mass

flow through the nozzle, 𝑚ሶ ′ , to the mass flow which would be passed if
the flow were isentropic, 𝑚,ሶ i.e.,

𝑚ሶ ′
coefficient of discharge = −−−− −(10.13)
𝑚ሶ
• Nozzles in practice are used with a variety of shapes and cross-
sections.

• The cross-section can be either circular or rectangular, and the axis of

the nozzle can be straight or curved.

• A typical circular section, straight axis nozzle is shown in Fig-4; and a

series of typical plate-type, curved axis steam nozzles is shown in Fig-5
• Recouping on coefficient of discharge, it is noted that actual
conditions at the nozzle throat are unknown, since no information is
given about the proportion of the friction losses which occurs in the
convergent portion.

• In order to allow for friction present in the convergent portion,

coefficient of discharge becomes significant. If flow to the throat is
isentropic, the coefficient of discharge is unity.

• The case of steam initially superheated expanding into the wet region
requires special treatment. Such an expansion is called supersaturated
expansion, and the phenomenon is called supersaturation.
• Properties of steam can be obtained from tables or from the ℎ𝑠-
chart.

• However, in order to find the critical pressure ratio, and hence the
critical velocity and the maximum mass flow, a graphical method
is necessary for an exact solution.

• Approximate formulae can be used using approximate isentropic

index, 𝑘.
Enthalpy Drop 𝐡𝟏 − 𝐡𝐜 , Velocity (𝐂), and Critical Velocity (𝐂𝐜 ) in terms
of 𝒌

• For any small length of the duct, where the pressure changes by 𝑑𝑝, and
the velocity changes by 𝑑𝐶, then, neglecting friction,

Force to accelerate the fluid = −𝐴𝑑𝑝 −−−− −(14)

• Rate of change of momentum is also equal to this force, i.e.,

Rate of change of momentum = mass flow × change of velocity

= 𝑚𝑑𝐶
ሶ −−−− −(15)
• Equating, therefore, gives

−𝐴𝑑𝑝 = 𝑚𝑑𝐶
ሶ

• Using equation, 𝑚ሶ = 𝐴𝐶 Τ𝜈, then,

𝐴𝐶𝑑𝐶
−𝐴𝑑𝑝 = 𝑜𝑟 − 𝜈𝑑𝑝 = 𝐶𝑑𝐶
𝜈

• Assuming that

𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑝𝜈 𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝜈=
𝑝1/𝑘

𝑑𝑝
then, − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 × = 𝐶𝑑𝐶
𝑝1Τ𝑘
• Integrating,

𝑝𝑐 𝐶𝑐
𝑑𝑝
− 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 × න 1Τ 𝑘
= න 𝐶𝑑𝐶
𝑝1 𝑝 𝐶1

i.e.

𝑘−1 Τ𝑘 𝑘−1 Τ𝑘
𝑝𝑐 − 𝑝1 𝐶𝑐2 − 𝐶12
− 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 × =
𝑘 − 1 Τ𝑘 2

1/𝑘 1/𝑘
• Now, ‘constant’ is equal to 𝑝1 𝜈1 or 𝑝𝑐 𝜈𝑐 , hence
or,

𝑘 𝐶𝑐2 − 𝐶12
𝑝1 𝜈1 − 𝑝𝑐 𝜈𝑐 =
𝑘−1 2

• Term on the right-hand-side is change of kinetic energy, and from the SFEE

𝐶𝑐2 − 𝐶12
ℎ1 − ℎ𝑐 =
2
i.e.
𝐶𝑐2 − 𝐶12 𝑘
ℎ1 − ℎ𝑐 = = 𝑝1 𝜈1 − 𝑝𝑐 𝜈𝑐 −−−− −(10.16)
2 𝑘−1

• Equation (10.16) can be applied between the inlet and any other section
of the nozzle.
To find critical velocity in terms of the critical pressure,
assuming that the inlet velocity is negligibly small, gives

Next Slide
Now, from equation (10.11),

Substitution then gives

 Fig. 6
Case (d) is called optimal
expansion. Exhaust from
nozzle is column-shaped.
Example 01

Statement

Steam at 30 𝑏𝑎𝑟 and specific volume 0.0993 𝑚3 Τ𝑘𝑔 enters

a convergent-divergent nozzle with negligible inlet velocity,
and expands into a space at 4 𝑏𝑎𝑟. Calculate the throat and
the exit areas for a mass flow of 0.2 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑠. Assume that the
steam expands isentropically according to a law 𝑝𝜈 1.3 =
constant, and assume optimal expansion in the nozzle. Do
not use steam tables or the ℎ𝑠-chart for the solution.
Solution

From equation (10.11)

From equation (10.17)

Next Slide
For condition at the nozzle throat, the continuity of mass
equation gives

∴ ν2 = 4.71 × 0.0993 m3 Τkg = 0.4677 m3 Τkg

Then using equation (10.16)

Therefore, using continuity of mass equation, gives

Example 02

Statement
Solution

Fig. 7

Next Slide
Using equation (10.5)
Using equation (10.13)
Using equation (10.4)
Using equation (10.4)
Using the continuity of mass equation,
http://www.mie.uth.gr/labs/ltte/grk/links/charts/h_s_Dampf.jpg
(Fig-8).