JUMPING AND

THROWING
EVENTS
LONG JUMP
long jump is a track and field event in
which an athlete is required to jump to a
distance as far as possible from a given
take off point. Among all the athletes, the
person who covers a maximum distance is
usually declared as winner. The sport is
played under both men and women
categories.
 BRIEF HISTORY
THE TRACES OF THIS SPORT LEAD US TO ANCIENT
GREECE. IT WAS THEN PLAYED AS OLYMPICS PATTERN. THE
PRESENCE OF THIS SPORT AT THAT TIME WAS BELIEVED TO BE
DUE TO ITS USEFULNESS IN WARFARE. HOWEVER, THE
PRACTICE METHODOLOGY WAS COMPLETELY DIFFERENT
FROM WHAT WE SEE TODAY. IN THOSE DAYS, PLAYERS USED
TO TAKE OFF AFTER RUNNING A SHORT DISTANCE ONLY. IN
ADDITION, THEY WERE SUPPOSED TO CARRY A WEIGHT
KNOWN AS HALTERS TO GIVE THAM MOMENTUM WHILE
SWINGING FORWARD. IN THE LATE 1800, US AND EUROPE
ADDED THIS SPORT INTO THEIR SPORT EVENTS AND SOON IN
1896 IT WAS INTRODUCE IN MODERN OLYMPICS FOR THE
FIRST TIME. HOWEVER, DURING THIS PERIOD THE USE OF
HALTERS WERE COMPLETELY ELIMINATED. IN 1928, OLYMPICS
WAS ORGANIZED NI HOLLAND IN WHICH WOMEN TOOK PART
FOR THE FIRST TIME. SOON AFTER THAT EVENT, THE
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR ATHLETIC FEDERATION
(IAAF) WAS FORMED TO GOVERN THIS SPORT.
 Long Jump – Playing
Environment
In Long Jump, an athlete has to jump as far as
possible from the take-off point. Landing is
generally done on a sand pit. For more comfort, the
land is filled with silicon sand. The run-up before the
jump is also limited. The runway for this sport should
have a length of 40 metres and width of 1.22 metres.
There is a take-off board present before the landing
area. It has the length of 1.22 metres whereas width
and depth are 20cm and 10 cm respectively. From at
least one metre from the landing area, there should
be plasticine to record the athlete’s footfaulted
prints. It is generally white in color. The landing
area should be filled with silicon sands. The length
of the field from the takeoff point to the end should
be at least 10 metres, whereas its width should be of
2.75 metres.
Long Jump – Training
Instead of learning much difficult techniques,
one should focus on the basics to master this sport.
Two things that matter the most in this sport are
speed and lift at the takeoff point. Flight techniques
and landing are equally important. An athlete needs
to attain a good speed within a given specific
distance boundary. During the preliminary training,
one should not be introduced to the take-off board
directly.
The following points should be kept in mind during
the initial stages of training:
• Your head should be upright throughout the
jumping session.
• Choose a jumping area that is more suitable to have
sideways jumping.
• Initially, you should make short approach run and
should mark the places where the running
actually starts.
Apart from these, it is also advised to the starters not to
take long run initially. Take short approach, run, take-off,
and land naturally at whatever position you are
comfortable with your speed. If you take-off through a
long run without practice, then fatigue can occur quickly
and this will affect further practice.
• Make sure that you run fast during your practice
session with your head upright.
• Make a flat back land off with your legs being
stretched straight.
• Take-off leg should be extended as much as possible to
cover a good distance.
• Do not keep your arms tight. Instead, keep them free and
swing them with body movement to get maximum
momentum.
Some points should be noted about take-off foot. Only
sailing is done with proper tactics.
• Make sure that the heel of your feet will lands first.
• As the take-off proceeds, there will be a rolling
action of the ball of the foot.
• Make the use of the toes of your take-off foot and
rise it up against air as high as possible.
Running should be done in fast-foot action
manner. That means, pawing should be done first, then
extension of the take-off leg should be made with much
speed. During the take-off process, the mid-line of the
body should contain the foot. The pointing direction of
the foot should be in the forward direction of jump.
Dos and Don’ts during the Practice The following
points should be in your checklist during practice:
• Till the take-off point, do maintain your speed at any
cost.
• As soon as you cross the board, give a rapid boost to
your speed.
• To maintain more upright positions, do experiment on
your running styles that suit you better.
• Compensatory action of the arms should be done to
give the momentum.
• Landing drills should be added to the practice
schedule.
The following are the things that you should not do:
• Just before take-off, shortening or lengthening the
stride.
• Without attaining much speed, taking-off from the hill.
• Inclining the trunk too far forward or backward.
Imbalance during the flight.
• Positioning one foot below the other foot during the
landing phase.
 Long Jump – How to Play?
Long Jump − Approach
The number of strides varies depending upon the level of
competition. For primary school performers, the number of strides
varies in between 11 to 15 whereas for senior athletes, the number of
strides varies between 19 and 23. Due to low muscular strength, the
approach run for women is 3-4 metre less in comparison to men. A
systematic rhythm must be set to achieve a high horizontal velocity. To
achieve this, the speed pattern must be modified. Maintain this rhythm
till the take-off point and at the point of take-off, lower your hip and rise
with a sudden force to gain an instant momentum. From the normal
stride, the sinking of hip stride should be 25 cm below.
 It is a general practice that in the approach run, if an athlete is
running in 19 strides, then his take-off foot is going to touch the ground
10 times. Hence to mark the starting point, the player initially runs
backward from the take-off point. He continues to run till his take-off foot
touches the ground 10 times.
The moment it touches the ground, the coach will mark that point.
This type of practice will be done minimum six times. The farthest point
from the take-off point is taken as starting point. The wind is also a factor
in it. If the wind is blowing from the back the run up distance will be
longer and vice versa.
Long Jump − Take-off
When the athlete’s leg gets on the board during the take-off
phase, its position is much ahead of the centre of gravity and this helps
in imposing maximum vertical velocity. In addition to this, an athlete can
attain more speed by making the upward acceleration of his non take-off
leg, arms and free limbs. To impose vigorous impulses, strengthen your
take-off leg as much as possible.
You need to keep the following things in mind:
• Extensions should be made up to maximum with the help of ankle, toe,
hip, and knee.
• Position of your free thigh should be parallel to the ground.
• Your opposite arm should do the coordination.
• Chest and back should not lean down and your eyes should look
forward.
• Instead of making variable speed, maintain a constant rhythm
throughout the approach.
Determination of take-off leg is very simple. Just kick a ball with
your left leg, having your right leg on the ground. If the right leg
maintains the balance of your body well, then it is your take-off leg and
vice versa.
Long Jump − Flight
Flight is the most important part of the jumping. You need to keep
the following points in mind during the Flight:
• Free leg should be raised to a horizontal position during the take-off.
• Position of the free leg however should trail back as much as possible
during the whole flight.
• Best position for the hands is above the shoulder level.
• Keep the trunk in the upright position as much as possible otherwise it
will make obstacles in moving your leg up during the landing time.
During the flight, it is crucial that you maintain perfect alignment
between your head, back, and hips.
Long Jump – Rules
All rules for long jump are made and monitored through
International Association for Athletic Federations. Playing by rules will
fetch you points on your performance and the reverse may cost you
penalty which may lead to disqualification from the entire tournament.
Here is a list of some important rules that every athlete needs to follow
while participating in a Long Jump event:
• The number of trials varies depending upon the number of
competitors. If the number of competitors is more than eight, then
each one will be given three trials and best eight among them may be
given additional three trials. However, if the number of competitors is
less than eight, then each may be given six trials.
• If a competitor wishes, he can have some practice trials before the
beginning of the competition under the supervision of judges. Once
the competition has begun, they are not allowed to use the
competition or take-off area.
• Markers are provided by the organising committee to the players to
mark their take-off and run off points. No other substances like chalks
should be used which can leave indelible marks.
• Soon after the athlete jumps, measurement is done from the nearest
point that has touched the take-off point.
• All measurements are done perpendicular to the take-off point.
• For the trial to be legal, the wind meter reading is also important. It
should show the parameters within the required specific zone.
• The performer has to complete his jump within one minute.
• If there is a tie between two players after scoring, chances are given
to them till the time one performs better than the other and gain more
points.
International Associations of Athletic Federation (IAAF) is the
governing body of high jump. Every participating country has its own
governing body to organize the long jump competitions successfully
throughout the calendar
Here is a list of some important tournaments in Long Jump:
• Summer Olympics
• World Championship
• Asian Games
• World indoor Championship
• Commonwealth Games
 STANDING LONG
JUMP
The standing long jump, also known as the standing broad jump,
is an Athletics event. It was an Olympic event until 1912. It is one of three
standing variants of track and field jumping events, which also include
the standing high jump and standing triple jump.
In performing the standing long jump, the jumper stands at a line
marked on the ground with the feet slightly apart. The athlete takes off
and lands using both feet, swinging the arms and bending the knees to
provide forward drive. In Olympic rules, the measurement used was the
longest of three tries. The jump must be repeated if the athlete falls back
or takes a step at take-off.
Just as the athlete is about to land, the feet should be as far in
front of the body as possible without causing the athlete to lose balance
and take a backward step after landing. To get the feet to move forward,
the arms whip back to the hips. This helps kick the feet out in front. On
landing, the athlete should try to absorb the impact by bending at the
knees and hips
 HIGH JUMP
The high jump is a track and field event in which
competitors must jump unaided over a horizontal bar placed
at measured heights without dislodging it. In its modern
most practiced format, a bar is placed between two
standards with a crash mat for landing. In the modern era,
athletes run towards the bar and use the fosbury
flop method of jumping, leaping head first with their back to
the bar. Since ancient times, competitors have introduced
increasingly effective techniques to arrive at the current
form.
The discipline is, alongside the pole vault, one of two
vertical clearance events to feature on the Olympic athletics
programme. It is contested at the world championship in
athletics and iaaf world indoor championships, and is a
common occurrence at track and field meetings. The high
jump was among the first events deemed acceptable for
women, having been held at the 1928 Olympic games.
Rules
• The rules for the high jump
are set internationally by
the International Association of
Athletics Federations (IAAF).
Jumpers must take off on one
foot. A jump is considered a
failure if the bar is dislodged by
the action of the jumper whilst
jumping or the jumper touches
the ground or breaks the plane
of the near edge of the bar
before clearance. The technique
one uses for the jump must be
almost flawless in order to have
a chance of clearing a high bar.
• Competitors may begin jumping at any height announced by the
chief judge, or may pass, at their own discretion. Most competitions
state that three consecutive missed jumps, at any height or
combination of heights, will eliminate the jumper from competition.
• The victory goes to the jumper who clears the greatest height
during the final. Tie-breakers are used for any place in which scoring
occurs. If two or more jumpers tie for one of these places, the tie-
breakers are: 1) the fewest misses at the height at which the tie
occurred; and 2) the fewest misses throughout the competition.
• If the event remains tied for first place (or a limited advancement
position to a subsequent meet), the jumpers have a jump-off,
beginning at the next greater height. Each jumper has one attempt.
The bar is then alternately lowered and raised until only one jumper
succeeds at a given height.
Technical aspects
The approach run
The approach run of the high jump may actually be
more important than the take-off. If a high jumper runs with
bad timing or without enough aggression, clearing a high bar
becomes more of a challenge. The approach requires a
certain shape or curve, the right amount of speed, and the
correct number of strides. The approach angle is also
Technical aspects
Most great straddle jumpers have a run at angles of about 30 to
40 degrees. The length of the run is determined by the speed of the
person's approach. A slower run requires about 8 strides. However, a
faster high jumper might need about 13 strides. A greater run speed
allows a greater part of the body's forward momentum to be converted
upward.
The J type approach, favored by Fosbury floppers, allows for
horizontal speed, the ability to turn in the air (centripetal force), and
good take-off position. This allows for horizontal momentum to turn into
vertical momentum, propelling the jumper off the ground and over the
bar. The approach should be a hard controlled stride so that a person
does not fall from creating an angle with speed. Athletes should run tall
and lean on the curve, from the ankles and not the hips. This allows the
correct angle to force their hips to rotate during take-off, which allows
their center of gravity to pass under the bar.
The take-off
Unlike the classic straddle technique, where the take-off foot is
"planted" in the same spot at every height, flop-style jumpers must
adjust their take-off as the bar is raised. Their approach run must be
adjusted slightly so that their take-off spot is slightly further out from the
bar in order to allow their hips to clear the bar while still maintaining
enough momentum to carry their legs across the bar. Jumpers
attempting to reach record heights commonly fail when most of their
energy is directed into the vertical effort, and they brush the bar off the
standards with the backs of their legs as they stall out in mid-air.

Training

In high jump, it helps if the athlete is tall, has long legs, and
limited weight on their body. They must have a strong lower body and
flexibility helps a lot as well. High jumpers tend to go through very
vigorous training methods to achieve this ideal body frame.
Sprinting
High jumpers must have a fast approach so it is crucial to work on
speed and also speed endurance. Lots of high jump competitions may
take hours and athletes must make sure they have the endurance to last
the entire competition. Common sprint endurance workouts for high
jumpers include 200-, 400-, and 800-meter training. Other speed
endurance training methods such as hill training or a ladder workout may
also be used.
Weight Lifting
It is crucial for high jumpers to have strong lower bodies and
cores, as the bar progressively gets higher, the strength of an athlete's
legs (along with speed and technique) will help propel them over the
bar. Squats, deadlifts, and core exercises will help a high jumper achieve
these goals. It is important, however, for a high jumper to keep a slim
figure as any unnecessary weight makes it difficult to jump higher.
Plyometrics
Arguably the most important training for a high jumper is plyometric training.
Because high jump is such a technical event, any mistake in the technique could
either lead to failure, injury, or both. To prevent these from happening, high
jumpers tend to focus heavily on plyometrics. This includes hurdle jumps,
flexibility training, skips, or scissor kick training. Plyometric workouts tend to be
performed at the beginning of the workout.
 throWING
FACILITIES
AND
EQUIPMENTS
Discus throw
The discus throw also known as disc throw, is a track and
field event in which an athlete throws a heavy disc—called a discus—in
an attempt to mark a farther distance than their competitors. It is
an ancient sport, as demonstrated by the fifth-century-
BC Myron statue Discobolus. Although not part of the modern
pentathlon, it was one of the events of the ancient Greek pentathlon,
which can be dated back to at least to 708 BC, and is part of the
modern decathlon.
History
The sport of throwing the discus traces back to it being an event in
the original Olympic Games of Ancient Greece. The discus as a sport was
resurrected in Magdeburg, Germany, by Christian Georg Kohlrausch and his
students in the 1870s. Organized Men's competition was resumed in the late
19th century, and has been a part of the modern Summer Olympic
Games since the first modern competition, the 1896 Summer Olympics.
Images of discus throwers figured prominently in advertising for early
modern Games, such as fundraising stamps for the 1896 games, the main
posters for the 1920 and 1948 Summer Olympics. Today the sport of discus
is a routine part of modern track-and-field meets at all levels, and retains a
particularly iconic place in the Olympic Games.
 The first modern athlete to throw the discus while rotating the
whole body was František Janda-Suk from Bohemia (present Czech
Republic). He invented this technique when studying the position of the
famous statue of Discobolus. After only one year of developing the
technique he earned a silver medal in the 1900 Olympics.
Women's competition began in the first decades of the 20th
century. Following competition at national and regional levels it was
added to the Olympic program for the 1928 games.
Description
The men's discus is a heavy lenticular disc with a weight of 2
kilograms (4.4 lb) and diameter of 22 centimetres (8.7 in), the women's
discus has a weight of 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) and diameter of 18 centimetres
(7.1 in). Under IAAF (international) rules, Youth boys (16–17 years) throw
the 1.5 kilograms (3.3 lb) discus, the Junior men (18–19 years) throw the
unique 1.75 kilograms (3.9 lb) discus, and the girls/women of those ages
throw the 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) discus.
In international competition, men throw the 2 kg discus through
to age 49. The 1.5 kilograms (3.3 lb) discus is thrown by ages 50–59, and
men age 60 and beyond throw the 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) discus. Women
throw the 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) discus through to age 74. Starting with age
75, women throw the 0.75 kilograms (1.7 lb) discus.
 The typical discus has sides made of plastic, wood, fiberglass,
carbon fiber or metal with a metal rim and a metal core to attain the
weight. The rim must be smooth, with no roughness or finger holds. A
discus with more weight in the rim produces greater angular momentum
for any given spin rate, and thus more stability, although it is more
difficult to throw. However, a higher rim weight, if thrown correctly, can
lead to a farther throw. A solid rubber discus is sometimes used (see in
the United States).

Typical UNITED
discus STATES
 To make a throw, the competitor starts in a circle of 2.5 m
(8 ft 2 1⁄4 in) diameter, which is recessed in a concrete pad by 20
millimetres (0.79 in). The thrower typically takes an initial stance facing
away from the direction of the throw. He then spins anticlockwise (for
right-handers) around one and a half times through the circle to build
momentum, then releases his throw. The discus must land within a 34.92-
degree sector. The rules of competition for discus are virtually identical
to those of shot put, except that the circle is larger, a stop board is not
used and there are no form rules concerning how the discus is to be
thrown.
The basic motion is a forehanded sidearm movement. The discus
is spun off the index finger or the middle finger of the throwing hand. In
flight the disc spins clockwise when viewed from above for a right-
handed thrower, and anticlockwise for a left-handed thrower. As well as
achieving maximum momentum in the discus on throwing, the discus'
distance is also determined by the trajectory the thrower imparts, as well
as the aerodynamic behavior of the discus. Generally, throws into a
moderate headwind achieve the maximum distance. Also, a faster-
spinning discus imparts greater gyroscopic stability. The technique of
discus throwing is quite difficult to master and needs lots of experience
to get right, thus most top throwers are 30 years old or more.
M
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S
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R
E
M
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N
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Hammer throw
The hammer throw is one of the four throwing events in
regular track and field competitions, along with the discus throw, shot
put and javelin. The "hammer" used in this sport is not like any of the
tools also called by that name. It consists of a metal ball attached by a
steel wire to a grip. The size of the ball varies between men's and
women's competitions
History
With roots dating back to the 15th century, the contemporary
version of the hammer throw is one of the oldest of Olympic
Gamescompetitions, first included at the 1900 games in Paris,
France (the second Olympiad of the modern era). Its history since the
late 1960s and legacy prior to inclusion in the Olympics have been
dominated by European and Eastern European influence, which has
affected interest in the event in other parts of the world.
The hammer evolved from its early informal origins to become
part of the Scottish Highland games in the late 18th century, where
the original version of the event is still contested today.
While the men's hammer
throw has been part of the
Olympics since 1900,
the International
Association of Athletics
Federations did not start
ratifying women's marks
until 1995. Women's
hammer throw was first
included in the Olympics at
the 2000 summer
games in Sydney,
Australia, after having
been included in the World
Championships a year
earlier
Competition
The men's hammer weighs 16 pounds (7.26 kg) and measures
3 feet 11 3⁄4 inches (121.3 cm) in length, and the women's hammer
weighs 8.82 lb (4 kg) and 3 ft 11 in (119.4 cm) in length.[1] Like the other
throwing events, the competition is decided by who can throw the
implement the farthest.
Although commonly thought of as a strength event, technical
advancements in the last 30 years have evolved hammer throw
competition to a point where more focus is on speed in order to gain
maximum distance.
 The throwing motion involves about two swings from stationary
position, then three, four or very rarely five rotations of the body in
circular motion using a complicated heel-toe movement of the foot. The
ball moves in a circular path, gradually increasing in velocity with each
turn with the high point of the hammer ball toward the target sector and
the low point at the back of the circle. The thrower releases the ball at
the side of the circle as the hammer's velocity tends upward and toward
the target.
Javelin throw
The javelin throw is a track and field event where the javelin,
a spear about 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) in length, is thrown. The javelin thrower
gains momentum by running within a predetermined area. Javelin
throwing is an event of both the men's decathlon and the
women's heptathlon.
History
The javelin was part of the pentathlon of the Ancient Olympic
Games beginning in 708 BC in two disciplines, distance and target throw.
The javelin was thrown with the aid of a thong, called ankyle wound
around the middle of the shaft. Athletes would hold the javelin by the
thong and when the javelin was released this thong unwound giving the
javelin a spiraled flight.
Throwing javelin-like poles into targets was revived
in Germany and Sweden in the early 1870s. In Sweden, these poles
developed into the modern javelin, and throwing them for distance
became a common event there and in Finland in the 1880s. The rules
continued to evolve over the next decades; originally, javelins were
thrown with no run-up, and holding them by the grip at the center of
gravity was not always mandatory. Limited run-ups were introduced in
the late 1890s, and soon developed into the modern unlimited run-up.
 Sweden's Eric Lemming, who threw his first world best (49.32
meters) in 1899 and ruled the event from 1902 to 1912, was the first
dominant javelin thrower. When the men's javelin was introduced as an
Olympic discipline at the 1906 Intercalated Games, Lemming won by
almost nine metres and broke his own world record; Sweden swept the
first four places, as Finland's best throwers were absent and the event
had yet to become popular in any other country.[ Though challenged by
younger talents, Lemming repeated as Olympic champion in 1908 and
1912; his eventual best mark (62.32 m, thrown after the 1912 Olympics)
was the first javelin world record to be officially ratified by
the International Association of Athletics Federations.
In the late 19th and early 20th century, most javelin competitions
were two-handed; the implement was thrown with the right hand and
separately with the left hand, and the best marks for each hand were
added together. Competitions for the better hand only were less
common, though not unknown.At the Olympics a both-hands contest
was held only once, in 1912; Finland swept the medals, ahead of
Lemming. After that, this version of the javelin rapidly faded into
obscurity, together with similar variations of the shot and the discus;
Sweden's Yngve Häckner, with his total of 114.28 m from 1917, was the
last official both-hands world record holder.
Rules and competitions
The size, shape, minimum weight, and center of gravity of the
javelin are all defined by IAAF rules. In international competition, men
throw a javelin between 2.6 and 2.7 m (8 ft 6 in and 8 ft 10 in) in length
and 800 g (28 oz) in weight, and women throw a javelin between 2.2 and
2.3 m (7 ft 3 in and 7 ft 7 in) in length and 600 g (21 oz) in weight. The
javelin has a grip, about 150 mm (5.9 in) wide, made of cord and located
at the javelin's center of gravity (0.9 to 1.06 m (2 ft 11 in to 3 ft 6 in) from
the javelin tip for the men's javelin and 0.8 to 0.92 m (2 ft 7 in to 3 ft 0 in)
from the javelin tip for the women's javelin).
The technique used to throw the javelin is dictated by IAAF rules
and "non-orthodox" techniques are not permitted. The javelin must be
held at its grip and thrown overhand, over the athlete's shoulder or
upper arm. Further, the athlete is prohibited from turning completely
around such that his back faces the direction of throw. In practice, this
prevents athletes from attempting to spin and hurl the javelin sidearm in
the style of a discus throw. This rule was put in place when a group of
athletes began experimenting with a spin technique referred to as "free
style". On 24 October 1956, Pentti Saarikoski threw 99.25 m
(325 ft 7 1⁄4 in)using the technique holding the end of the javelin. Officials
were so afraid of the out of control nature of the technique that the
practice was banned through these rule specifications.
 Instead of being confined to a circle, javelin throwers
have a runway 4 m (13 ft) wide and at least 30 m (98 ft) in
length, ending in a curved arc from which their throw will be
measured; athletes typically use this distance to gain
momentum in a "run-up" to their throw. Like the other
throwing events, the competitor may not leave the throwing
area (the runway) until after the implement lands. The need
to come to a stop behind the throwing arc limits both how
close the athlete can come to the line before the release as
well as the maximum speed achieved at the time of release.
The javelin is thrown towards a "sector" covering an
angle of 28.96 degrees extending outwards from the arc at
the end of the runway. A throw is legal only if the tip of the
javelin lands within this sector, and the tip strikes the ground
before any other part of the javelin. The distance of the
throw is measured from the throwing arc to the point where
the tip of the javelin landed, rounded down to the nearest
centimeter.
Javelin redesigns
On 1 April 1986, the men's javelin (800 grams (1.76 lb)) was
redesigned by the governing body (the IAAF Technical Committee). They
decided to change the rules for javelin design because of the
increasingly frequent flat landings and the resulting discussions and
protests when these attempts were declared valid or invalid by
competition judges. The world record had also crept up to a potentially
dangerous level, 104.80 m (343.8 ft) by Uwe Hohn. With throws
exceeding 100 meters, it was becoming difficult to safely stage the
competition within the confines of a stadium infield. The javelin was
redesigned so that the centre of gravity was moved 4 cm (1.6 in) forward.
In addition, the surface area in front of centre of gravity was reduced,
while the surface area behind the centre of gravity was increased. This
had an effect similar to that produced by the feathers on an arrow. The
javelin turns into the relative wind. This relative wind appears to originate
from the ground as the javelin descends, thus the javelin turns to face the
ground. As the javelin turns into the wind less lift is generated, reducing
the flight distance by around 10% but also causing the javelin to stick in
the ground more consistently. In 1999, the women's javelin (600 grams
(1.32 lb)) was similarly redesigned.
 Modifications that manufacturers made to recover some of the
lost distance, by increasing tail drag (using holes, rough paint or
dimples), were forbidden at the end of 1991 and marks made using
implements with such modifications removed from the record
books. Seppo Rätyhad achieved a world record of 96.96 m (318.1 ft) in
1991 with such a design, but this record was nullified.
Technique and training
Unlike other throwing events, javelin allows the competitor to build
speed over a considerable distance. In addition to the core and upper body
strength necessary to deliver the implement, javelin throwers benefit from the
agility and athleticism typically associated with running and jumping events.
Thus, the athletes share more physical characteristics with sprinters than with
others, although they still need the skill of heavier throwing athletes.
Traditional free-weight training is often used by javelin throwers. Metal-
rod exercises and resistance band exercises can be used to train a similar action
to the javelin throw to increase power and intensity. Without proper strength and
flexibility, throwers can become extremely injury prone, especially in the
shoulder and elbow. Core stability can help in the transference of physical power
and force from the ground through the body to the javelin. Stretching and sprint
training are used to enhance the speed of the athlete at the point of release, and
subsequently, the speed of the javelin. At release, a javelin can reach speeds
approaching 113 km/h (70 mph).
The javelin throw consists of three separate phases: the run-up, the
transition, and the delivery. During each phase, the position of the javelin
changes while the thrower changes his or her muscle recruitment. In the
run-up phase as Luann Voza states, "your arm is bent and kept close to
your head, keeping the javelin in alignment with little to no arm
movement".This allows the thrower's bicep to contract, flexing the
elbow. In order for the javelin to stay up high, the thrower's deltoid flexes.
In the transition phase, the thrower's "back muscles contract" as "the
javelin is brought back in alignment with the shoulder with the thrower's
palm up". This, according to Voza, "stretches your pectoral, or chest,
muscles. From there, a stretch reflex, an involuntary contraction of your
chest, helps bring your throwing arm forward with increased
force". During the final phase, the rotation of the shoulders initiates the
release, which then “transfers movement through the triceps muscles,
wrists and fingers to extend the throwing arm forward to release the
javelin".
Shot put
The shot put is a track and field event invovling "putting" (pushing
rather than throwing) a heavy spherical object—the shot—as far as
possible. The shot put competition for men has been a part of the
modern Olympics since their revival in 1896, and women's competition
began in 1948.
History
Homer mentions competitions of rock throwing by soldiers
during the Siege of Troy but there is no record of any dead weights being
thrown in Greek competitions. The first evidence for stone- or weight-
throwing events were in the Scottish Highlands, and date back to
approximately the first century.[1] In the 16th century King Henry VIII was
noted for his prowess in court competitions of weight and hammer
throwing.
The first events resembling the modern shot put likely occurred in
the Middle Ages when soldiers held competitions in which they
hurled cannonballs. Shot put competitions were first recorded in early
19th century Scotland, and were a part of the British Amateur
Championships beginning in 1866
 Competitors take their throw from inside a marked circle 2.135m
(7 ft) in diameter, with a stopboard about 10 centimetres (3.9 in) high at
the front of the circle. The distance thrown is measured from the inside
of the circumference of the circle to the nearest mark made on the
ground by the falling shot, with distances rounded down to the nearest
centimetre under IAAF and WMA rules.
Legal throws
The following rules (indoor and outdoor) must be adhered to for a
legal throw:
• Upon calling the athlete's name, the athlete may choose any part of
the throwing circle to enter inside. They have thirty seconds to
commence the throwing motion; otherwise it counts as a forfeit for the
current match.
• The athlete may not wear gloves; IAAF rules permit the taping of
individual fingers.
• The athlete must rest the shot close to the neck, and keep it tight to
the neck throughout the motion.
• The shot must be released above the height of the shoulder, using
only one hand.
• The athlete may touch the inside surface of the circle or toe board,
but must not touch the top or outside of the circle or toe board, or the
ground beyond the circle. Limbs may, however, extend over the lines
of the circle in the air.
• The shot must land in the legal sector (34.92°) of the throwing area.
• The athlete must leave the throwing circle from the back.
Foul throws occur when an athlete:
• Does not pause within the circle before beginning the putting motion.
• Does not complete the putting movement initiated within thirty
seconds of having their name called.
• Allows the shot to drop below his shoulder or outside the vertical
plane of his shoulder during the put.
At any time if the shot loses contact with the neck then it is technically
an illegal put.
• During the putting motion, touches with any part of the body
(including shoes):
• the top or ends of the toe board
• the top of the iron ring
• anywhere outside the circle.
• Puts a shot which either falls outside the throwing sector or touches a
sector line on the initial impact.
• Leaves the circle before the shot has landed.
• Does not leave from the rear half of the circle.
Regulation misconceptions
The following are either obsolete or non-existent, but commonly believed
rules within professional competition:
• The athlete must enter the circle from the back (none of the rule
books contain such a clause).
• The athlete entering the circle, then exiting and re-entering it prior to
starting the throw results in a foul (all the rule books allow an athlete
to leave a circle prior to starting a throw, but this still counts within the
30 second time limit; the allowable method of exiting the circle varies
by rule book).
• Loose clothing, shoelaces, or long hair touching outside the circle
during a throw, or an athlete bringing a towel into the circle and then
throwing it out prior to the put, results in a foul.

Putting styles
Two putting styles are in current general use by shot put
competitors: the glide and the spin. With all putting styles, the goal is to
release the shot with maximum forward velocity at an angle of
approximately forty-five degrees.
Glide
The origin of this technique glide dates to 1951, when Parry
O'Brien from the United States invented a technique that involved the
putter facing backwards, rotating 180 degrees across the circle, and
then tossing the shot. Unlike spin this technique is a linear movement.
With this technique, a right-hand thrower would begin facing the
rear of the circle, and then kick to the front with the left leg, while
pushing off forcefully with the right. As the thrower crosses the circle,
the hips twist toward the front, the left arm is swung out then pulled back
tight, followed by the shoulders, and they then strike in a putting motion
with their right arm. The key is to move quickly across the circle with as
little air under the feet as possible, hence the name 'glide'.
Spin
Also known as rotational technique.[5] It was first practiced in
Europe in the 1950s but did not receive much attention until the
1970s.[6] In 1972 Aleksandr Baryshnikov set his first USSR record using a
new putting style, the spin ("круговой мах" in Russian), invented by his
coach Viktor Alexeyev.[7][8] The spin involves rotating like
a discus thrower and using rotational momentum for power. In 1976
Baryshnikov went on to set a world record of 22.00 m (72.18 ft) with his
spin style, and was the first shot putter to cross the 22-meter mark
 With this technique, a right-hand thrower faces the rear, and
begins to spin on the ball of the left foot. The thrower comes around and
faces the front of the circle and drives the right foot into the center of
the circle. Finally, the thrower reaches for the front of the circle with the
left foot, twisting the hips and shoulders like in the glide, and puts the
shot.
When the athlete executes the spin, the upper body is twisted
hard to the right, so the imaginary lines created by the shoulders and
hips are no longer parallel. This action builds up torque, and stretches
the muscles, creating an involuntary elasticity in the muscles, providing
extra power and momentum. When the athlete prepares to release, the
left foot is firmly planted, causing the momentum and energy generated
to be conserved, pushing the shot in an upward and outward direction.
Another purpose of the spin is to build up a high rotational speed,
by swinging the right leg initially, then to bring all the limbs in tightly,
similar to a figure skater bringing in their arms while spinning to increase
their speed. Once this fast speed is achieved the shot is released,
transferring the energy into the shot put.
Until 2016, a woman has never made an Olympic final (top 8)
using the spin technique. The first woman to enter a final and win a
medal at the Olympics was Anita Márton.
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