MAGNETO HYDRO DYNAMICS

(MHD) SYSTEM
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Need of MHDs
3. Principle Of MHD Power Generation
4. Types of MHD SYSTEM
5. Open Cycle MHD System
6. Closed Cycle MHD System
7. Diffrence between Open Cycle and Closed
Cycle MHD System
8. Advantages OF MHD System
9. Disadvantages of MHD System
10. Applications
11. Conclusion
Introduction
Magneto HydroDynamic (MHD) system is a non-
conventional source of energy which is based upon
Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction, which
states that energy is generated due to the movement of
an electric conductor inside a magnetic field.
Concept given by Michael Faraday in
1832 for the first time.

 MHD System widely used in advanced

countries.
 Under construction in INDIA.
Need of MHDs
At present a plenty of energy is needed to sustain industrial and
agricultural production, and the existing conventional energy sources
like coal, oil, uranium etc are not adequate to meet the ever
increasing energy demands. Consequently, efforts have been made
for harnessing energy from several non-conventional energy sources
like Magneto Hydro Dynamics(MHD) System.
Principle Of MHD Power Generation
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction : When an
electric conductor moves across a magnetic field, an emf is
induced in it, which produces an electric current .
Lorentz Force on the
charged particle (vector),
F = q(v × B)
where,
• v = velocity of the particle
(vector)
• q= charge of the particle
(scalar)
• B = magnetic field (vector)
Comparison between a Turbo generator and a
MHD generator
Types of
MHD SYSTEM
(1)Open cycle System
(2)Closed cycle System
(i)Seeded inert gas systems
(ii) Liquid metal systems
OPEN CYCLE MHD SYSTEM
HYBRID MHD STEAM PART OPEN CYCLE
CLOSED CYCLE MHD SYSTEM
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OPEN CYCLE AND
CLOSED CYCLE SYSTEM
Open Cycle System
• Working fluid after generating
electrical energy is discharged to
the atmosphere through a
stack .
• Operation of MHD generator is
done directly on combustion
products .
• Temperature requirement :
2300˚C to 2700˚C.
• More developed.
Closed Cycle System
• Working fluid is recycled to the
heat sources and thus is used
again.
• Helium or argon(with cesium
seeding) is used as the working
fluid.
• Temperature requirement : about
530˚C.
• Less developed.
NEED FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

The MHD channel operates on extreme conditions of

temperature, magnetic and electric fields .
So, numerous technological advancements are
needed prior to commercialization of MHD systems .
Search is on for better insulator and electrode
materials which can with stand the electrical, thermal,
mechanical and thermo-chemical stresses and
corrosion.
 ADVANTAGES OF MHD
SYSTEM
• Conversion efficiency of about 50% .
• Less fuel consumption.
• Large amount of pollution free power generated .
• Ability to reach full power level as soon as started.
• Plant size is considerably smaller than conventional fossil
fuel plants .
• Less overall generation cost.
• No moving parts, so more reliable .
DISADVANTAGES OF MHD SYSTEM
• Suffers from reverse flow (short circuits) of
electrons through the conducting fluids around
the ends of the magnetic field.
• Needs very large magnets and this is a major
expense.
• High friction and heat transfer losses.
• High operating temperature.
• Coal used as fuel poses problem of molten ash
which may short circuit the electrodes. Hence,
oil or natural gas are much better fuels for
MHDs. Restriction on use of fuel makes the
operation more expensive.
APPLICATIONS
• Power generation in space craft.

• Hypersonic wind tunnel experiments.

• Defense application.
CONCLUSION
The MHD power generation is in advanced stage today
and closer to commercial utilization. Significant progress
has been made in development of all critical components
and sub system technologies. Coal burning MHD
combined steam power plant promises significant
economic and environmental advantages compared to
other coal burning power generation technologies. It will
not be long before the technological problem of MHD
systems will be overcame and MHD system would
transform itself from non- conventional to conventional
energy sources.
Fuel Cells
Introduction
• A cell (or combination of cells) capable of generating an electric
current by converting the chemical energy of fuel directly into
electrical energy is called a Fuel Cell.
• The fuel is similar to other electric cells in the respect that it consists
of positive and negative electrodes with an electrolyte between them.
• Fuel in a suitable form is supplied to the negative electrode and
oxygen, often from air, to the positive electrode. When the cell
operates, the fuel is oxidized and the chemical reaction provides the
energy that is converted into electricity.
 • Fuel cells differ from conventional electric cells in the respect that the active
material (i.e. fuel and oxygen) are not contained within the cell but are supplied
from outside.

FUEL CELL BATTERY

1. The fuel cell is a primary cell and cannot
be recharged but can be refueled.
2. The fuel and oxidizer do not mix
together.
3. Fuel and oxidizer need continuous
replacement as per requirement.
4. It produces electricity continuously as
long as fuel and oxidizer is supplied.
1. The battery is chargeable
2. Fuel and oxidizer are not used
separately.
3. Battery stores fixed charges of chemical,
used up during reaction.
4. Battery stores energy.
Working principle of fuel cell
• Fuel cell is basically an electro-chemical device in which the chemical
energy of fuel is converted directly into electric energy.

• The main components of fuel cell are:

(i) A fuel electrode (anode)
(ii) An oxidant or air electrode (cathode), and
(iii) An electrolyte
• In most fuel cells, hydrogen is the active material at the negative
electrode and oxygen is active at the positive electrode. Since
hydrogen and oxygen are gases, fuel cell requires a solid electrical
conductor, porous in general to provide terminal at each electrode.
• Hydrogen gas is supplied to negative electrode and oxygen to positive
electrode. Between the electrodes is a layer of electrolyte.
The hydrogen enters the fuel cell at
the anode. A chemical reaction
separates the hydrogen molecules of
their electrons and the atoms
become ionized to form H+. The
electrons travel through load and
reaches cathode. The oxygen enters
at the cathode, usually from the air.
The oxygen picks up the electrons
that have completed their circuit. The
oxygen then combines with the
ionized hydrogen atoms (H+), and
water (H2O) is formed as the waste
product which exits the fuel cell.
Classification of fuel cells
Fuel cells can be classified in several ways.
1. Based on the type of electrolyte
(i) Phospohoric Acid Fuel cell (PAFC)
(ii) Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC)
(iii) Solid Polymer Fuel Cell (SPFC)
(iv) Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)
(v) Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
2. Based on types of the fuel and oxidant:
(i) Hydrogen – Oxygen Fuel Cell
(ii) Hydrogen – Air Fuel Cell
(iii) Ammonia – Air Fuel Cell
(iv) Hydrocarbon – Air Fuel Cell

3. Based on operating temperature:

(i) Low temperature fuel cell (below 150 degrees)
(ii) Medium temperature fuel cell (150-250 degrees)
(iii) High temperature fuel cell (250-800 degrees)
(iv) Very high temperature fuel cell (800-1100 degrees)
4. Based on application:
(i) Fuel cell for space applications
(ii) Fuel cell for vehicle propulsion
(iii) Fuel cell for submarines
(iv) Fuel cell for defense applications
(v) Fuel cell for commercial applications

5. Based on chemical nature of electrolyte:

(i) Acidic electrolyte type
(ii) Alkaline electrolyte type
(iii) Neutral electrolyte type
Types of Fuel Cells
• Phosphoric Acid Fuel cells (PAFC)
• Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC)
• Solid Polymer Fuel Cell (SPFC)
• Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)
• Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
1. Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)
• These cells are developed in 1980s. It consists of two electrodes of
porous conducting material to collect charge, with concentrated
phosphoric acid filled between them, to work as electrolyte.
• The operating temperature of PAFC is 150-200 degrees.
• At atmospheric pressure it produces an ideal emf of 1.23 V at
25 deg, which reduces to 1.15 V at 200 deg.
• Normally at rated values of current the voltage lies between
0.7-0.8 V.
2. Alkaline Fuel Cell
• It is the oldest of all fuel cells uses 40% aqueous KOH as electrolyte.
The operating temperature is about 900C. The electrodes and working
details are similar to PAFC.
• At positive electrode oxygen, water (from electrolyte) and
returning electrons from the external load combine to produce
-
OH ions:

1/2 O2 + H2O + 2e- = 2OH-

• These ions migrate from positive to negative electrode through

electrolyte. On reaching positive electrode these ions combine
with hydrogen to produce water. An equivalent number of
electrons are liberated that flow through external load towards
positive electrode.
 3. Solid polymer Fuel Cell (SPFC)
• A solid membrane of organic material that allows hydrogen ions to pass
through it used as an electrolyte. The basic components of cell are shown
in figure. It has a thin layer of the membrane which is used to keep the
internal resistance of cell as low as possible and current collector.
• The advantageous feature of this membrane is that it retains
only limited quantity of water and rejects excess water
produced in the cell.
• The cell operates at 40-60 degrees.
• The ideal emf produced is 12.3 V at 25 deg.
 4. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)
• In MCFC, carbonate of alkali metals (Na, K or Li) in molten (liquid) phase is
used as electrolyte. This requires the cell operation at a temperature above
melting points (about 600-700 deg). The operation of MCFC is explained
with the help of diagram.
• At the fuel electrode, H2 and CO react with CO3- ions present in the
electrolyte and release two electrons each to the electrode as given below.

H2 + CO3-- = H2O + CO2 + 2e-

CO + CO3-- = 2CO2 + 2e-

These electrons circulate through external resistance, forming load current,

and reach the oxidant electrode. The CO2 produced at fuel electrode is
circulated through an external path to oxidant electrode, where it combines
with O2 and returning electron through external path. Thus these ions are
responsible for transportation of charge from positive to negative electrode
within electrolyte.
 5. Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
• Certain solid oxides at high
temperature can be used as
electrolyte. For example,
zirconium oxide containing a small
amount of other oxide to stabilize
the crystal structure has been
used as an electrolyte.
• The negative electrolyte is made
of porous nickel and positive
electrode employs metal oxide.
• The operating temperature is in range of 600-1000 degrees. Due to high
temperature operation, catalyst is not required.
• At the fuel electrode H2 and CO react with O– ions present in the electrolyte
to produce H2O and CO2.
• The two electrons released flow through external path to constitute load
current. The output voltage at full load is about 0.63V.

• At positive electrode: H2 + O-- = H2O + 2e-

CO + O-- = CO2 + 2e-

• At negative electrode: O2 + 4e- = 2O—

• The overall reaction is: H2 + CO + O2 = H2O + CO2
Fuel Cell Conversion Efficiency
• The electrical energy generated by a fuel cell depends on what is
called the “free” energy rather than on the heat energy, of overall cell
reaction.
• The free energy formation of 1 mole (18 grams) of liquid from water
from hydrogen and oxygen gases at atmospheric pressure is 56.67
kcal or 237 KJ at 25OC. The heat energy of the reaction under the
same conditions is 68.26 kcal (286 kJ).
• The theoretical efficiency of the conversion of heat energy into
electrical energy in a hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell is thus
(56.67/68.26)X100 = 83 percent.
• Efficiencies as high as 70% have been observed, but the practical cells using
pure hydrogen and oxygen generally have conversion efficiencies in the
range of 50 to 60 percent.
• The theoretical emf of a fuel cell can be calculated from the reaction free
energy. For the hydrogen oxygen cell at 25OC, with the gases at atmospheric
pressure, the ideal emf is 1.23 volts; at 2000C, it is about 1.15 volts.
• The discharge voltages observed in actual cells are always below the
theoretical value, the difference increasing with increasing strength of the
current drawn from the cell is shown.
• For moderate currents at which fuel cells normally operate the emf is 0.7
to 0.8 volts. This deviation from the theoretical emf accounts for the
conversion efficiency of a fuel cell being below the ideal max value.
• Even in idea fuel cell, (100 – 83 = 17) 17% of the chemical reaction energy
would be liberated as heat. The proportion is increased in an actual cell
because the conversion efficiency is less than the maximum of 83%.
Applications of Fuel Cells
Once fuel cells of reasonably low cost and long life become available,
they will be preferred in large number of applications. Some of their
potential applications are:
1. During peak load time, when demand exceeds the generation, the
stored hydrogen would be used in fuel cells to meet additional
demand.
2. A central power station power plant using fuel cell is also possible
using gasified coal as fuel.
3. Fuel cells are also suited for dispersed generation.
4. To meet the demand of isolated sites such as construction sites,
military camps, small village community, etc.
5. For remote and inaccessible locations fuel cell can be used
unattended for long period.
6. Emergency/Auxiliary supply to critical loads such as hosipatals, etc
7. Used as mobile power source in vehicles, submarines, spacecrafts, etc.
8. Fuel cells are also proposed as power source for propulsion of electric
vehicles.
Solar – Wind Hybrid System
• A combination of solar and wind energy systems are being
experimented in a number of isolated locations not connected to the
grid. Such a system is shown in the figure.
• Depending on the frequency of the wind generator, consumer circuits
could be switched on and off through a consumer control device to
ensure that the frequency does not fluctuate by more than few
percent of its rating.
• Similarly solar generator may consist of many sections kept in
operation depends on the charge on the battery and wind speed.
• Many remote power systems throughout the world rely on diesel
generators for the production of electrical power. Such applications
include village electrification, irrigation and water pumping which incur
high electric generating costs due to price of diesel fuel.
• Coupling renewable energy systems, such as wind and photovoltaic (PV) and
batteries with a diesel set can lower the cost of generation of electricity by
reducing the amount of fossil fuel required.
• Designing such hybrid systems require two major considerations:
1. Determining an optimal mix of power generation sources to meet the
required load while providing the lowest busbar cost of electricity
2. Arriving at a system operating strategy that maximizes the use of
renewable sources and allows the diesel set to run at full load when
required.
Wind – Diesel Hybrid System
• There are many remoted and isolated places in the world where
utility grid has no access and they are depended on locally installed
diesel generator units. In such places, win electricity may be very
economical if favorable wind is available.
• Unfortunately, wind is a highly fluctuating power source and the raw
output is incompatible with the demand. In such places, isolated wind
turbines can be installed in conjunction with diesel generating units
for backup.
• This hybrid system is popularly known as wind-diesel system, as
shown in figure.
• For economic viability, the savings in fuel cost should cover the additional
investment cost due to wind generator, controller, dump load, storage unit,
converter and auxiliary equipment.
• Two types of operational schedule is possible for diesel unit:
i. Continuous diesel unit operation: The simplest way to incorporate the
wind turbine into the standard diesel powered system, without increasing
the risk of loss of load, is to operate wind turbine in parallel with a
continuously running diesel generator. In this mode, wind power acts as
negative load, reducing the average load of the diesel unit. This system
performs well without the need of any supervisory control.
ii. Intermittent diesel unit operation: In this mode diesel unit is switched off
during periods when the output of wind turbine is sufficiently high to meet
the demand without any backup. The saving of fuel is more in this case.
However, due to variation in wind power, frequent operation of diesel unit
may be required. Frequent startups hasten the wear of diesel engine and
starter. Also owing to inertia, comparatively lengthy time interval is necessary
to start and stop the unit. The system may collapse during diesel generator
startup, if, wind power drops within startup level.